Whether The Discipline Of Accounting Can Be Classified As A Science Accounting Essay

The issue at manus is to find whether the subject of accounting can be classified as a scientific discipline, or non. In order for me to organize an sentiment on the above stated affair, I would hold to take a closer expression at, foremost the term accounting, and secondly the construct of scientific discipline. Many good weather-beaten research workers have looked at constructs associating to my subject in recent history. I will take into consideration their ideas and findings in an effort to come to my ain decision. Science: The word scientific discipline comes from the Latin word â€Å" scientia, † intending cognition. How do we specify scientific discipline? Harmonizing to Webster ‘s New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of scientific discipline is â€Å" cognition attained through survey or pattern. † What does that truly intend? Science refers to a system of geting cognition. This system uses observation and experimentation to depict and explicate natural phenomena. The term scientific discipline besides refers to the organized organic structure of cognition people have gained utilizing that system. Less officially, the word scientific discipline frequently describes any systematic field of survey or the cognition gained from it. What is the intent of scientific discipline? Possibly the most general description is that the intent of scientific discipline is to bring forth utile theoretical accounts of world. Science as defined above is sometimes called pure scientific discipline to distinguish it from applied scientific discipline, which is the application of research to human demands. William claude dukenfields of scientific discipline are normally classified along two major lines: A A A – Natural scientific disciplines: The survey of the natural universe, and A A A – Social scientific disciplines: The systematic survey of human behavior and society. In modern times, the term scientific discipline is frequently treated as synonymous with ‘natural and physical scientific discipline ‘ , and hence restricted to those subdivisions of survey that relate to the phenomena of the material existence and their Torahs. As clip progressed it became more common to mention to natural doctrine as â€Å" natural scientific discipline † . Over the class of the nineteenth century, the word â€Å" scientific discipline † became progressively associated with the disciplined survey of the natural universe including natural philosophies, chemical science, geology and biological science. This sometimes left the survey of human idea and society in a proficient quandary, which was resolved by sorting these countries of academic survey as societal scientific discipline. Similarly, several other major countries of disciplined survey and cognition exist today under the general term of â€Å" scientific discipline † , such as formal scientific discipline and applied scientific discipline. Accounting: Harmonizing to the book Investerwords, Accounting can be defined as the systematic recording, coverage, and analysis of fiscal minutess of a concern. The individual in charge of accounting is known as an comptroller, and this person is typically required to follow a set of regulations and ordinances, such as the International Financial Reporting Standards ( IFRS ) . Accounting allows a company to analyse the fiscal public presentation of the concern, and expression at statistics such as net net income. Accounting is defined by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants ( AICPA ) as â€Å" the art of recording, classifying, and sum uping in a important mode and in footings of money, minutess and events which are, in portion at least, of fiscal character, and construing the consequences thereof. † Accounting is 1000s of old ages old ; the earliest accounting records day of the month back more than 7,000 old ages. Early histories served chiefly to help the memory of the concern individual and the audience for the history was the owner or record keeper entirely. Cruder signifiers of accounting were unequal for the jobs created by a concern entity affecting multiple investors, so double-entry clerking foremost emerged in northern Italy in the fourteenth century, where trading ventures began to necessitate more capital than a individual person was able to put. The development of joint stock companies created wider audiences for histories, as investors without firsthand cognition of their operations relied on histories to supply the needed information. This development resulted in a split of accounting systems for internal ( i.e. direction accounting ) and external ( i.e. fiscal accounting ) purposes, and later besides in accounting and revelation ordinances and a turning demand fo r independent attestation of external histories by hearers. Today, accounting is called â€Å" the linguistic communication of concern † because it is the vehicle for describing fiscal information about a concern entity to many different groups of people. Accounting that concentrates on describing to people inside the concern entity is called direction accounting and is used to supply information to employees, directors, owner-managers and hearers. Management accounting is concerned chiefly with supplying a footing for doing direction or operating determinations. Accounting that provides information to people outside the concern entity is called fiscal accounting and provides information to show and possible stockholders, creditors such as Bankss or sellers, fiscal analysts, economic experts, and authorities bureaus. Because these users have different demands, the presentation of fiscal histories is really structured and capable to many more regulations than direction accounting. The organic structure of regulations that governs fiscal accounting is called International Financial Reporting Standards ( IFRS ) . What does other research workers say on the subject: Over many old ages philosophers have been debating on what the standard of scientific discipline should be in hopes that this standards could be used for at least two intents: foremost, to separate scientific discipline from common sense cognition ( without claiming that the two are radically disjunctive. In some instances they may differ merely in grade, non in sort ) ; 2nd, to separate that which is scientific from that which is non-scientific or unscientific. Many philosophers have proposed different standards. One of these philosophers is Herbert Feigl. In the book Introductory Readings in the Doctrine of Science by Klemke, Hollinger and Klein ( 1980 ) , Feigl ‘s 5 standards, which can be found throughout his Hagiographas and talks, is discussed and listed as follows: Intersubjective testability. This refers to the possibility of being, in rule, capable of documentation or â€Å" check-up † by anyone ; hence, private intuition must be excluded. Dependability. This refers to that which, when put to a trial, turns out to be true, or at least to be that which we can most moderately believe to be true. Testing is non plenty. Feigl wants theories which, when tested, are found to be true. Definiteness and preciseness. This refers to the remotion of vagueness and ambiguity. We seek, for illustration, constructs which are definite and bounded. We are frequently helped here by measuring. Coherence or systematic character. This refers to the organisational facet of a theory. A set of staccato statements is non every bit fruitful as one which has systematic character. It besides refers to the remotion of, or being free from, contradictoriness. Comprehensiveness or range. This refers to our attempt to achieve a continual addition in the completeness of our cognition and besides to our seeking theories which have the maximal explanatory power. For illustration, to account for things which other theories do non account for. Michael Power has written extensively on the subject of accounting as a scientific discipline. In his book From scientific discipline of histories to fiscal answerability of scientific discipline he writes that for many old ages fiscal accounting discourse had been concerned with the nature of economic measuring, in peculiar income acknowledgment and plus rating. He besides states that as academic accounting established itself, it was possibly inevitable that these inquiries should get an epistemic spirit. In his book, Power besides refers to another philosopher, Paul Miranti. Miranti explores the thought of â€Å" scientific accounting † in the early old ages of the American accounting profession. These early contemplations represent efforts to raise accounting and audit patterns beyond the position of trade cognition and to link them with comparatively established signifiers of scientific thought. Harmonizing to subsequently theoreticians such as Ray Chambers and Robert Ster ling accounting pattern suffered and continues to endure from the permeant subjectiveness of its calculating operations. In their position, accounting pattern could go more scientific merely by refering itself with the nonsubjective economic measuring of the independent phenomena. Ray Chambers had a womb-to-tomb aspiration to change over accounting into a pure scientific discipline. Unfortunately he became so captive with this political orientation that he failed to see accounting as an applied scientific discipline, one that will ne'er be able to mensurate up to criterions known from the pure and strict scientific disciplines. Last, I want to mention to the early Hagiographas of Earl Saliers. In 1941 he wrote in The Accounting Review that accounting and economic sciences are by and large considered to be societal scientific disciplines. This indicates to me that the specific subject has been debated and written about for many decennaries. Decision: After taking into history everything that I have read, I have to organize the sentiment that accounting decidedly classifies as a signifier of scientific discipline. When using the subject of accounting to Feigl ‘s standards it decidedly meets the demands. The accounting pattern is really dependable. It is a systematic application of certain rules which can be applied numerously with precisely the same result, doing the subject really definite and precise. Accounting besides requires a strong footing of cognition which is another indicant that it is in line with the definition of a scientific discipline. In my sentiment nevertheless, it is really difficult to sort all facets of accounting as a pure scientific discipline. My concluding decision therefore has to be that accounting can be regarded as an applied scientific discipline, where cognition and systems are combined and applied in order to organize a subject which forms the nucleus of all concern traffics and record maintaining minutess.

How much impact did Martin Luther King have in changing civil rights for black Americans? Essay

The struggle of black people in America for freedom, justice, and self-definition stretches from the colonial and early nineteenth-century slaveholding era to the twenty-first century, but its intensity has varied from one period to the next. One of the most intense periods occurred in the 1950’s and 1960’s, when struggling was usually associated with the psychological and strategic use of nonviolence. Martin Luther King (MLK) was one of many Civil Rights leaders that bought publicity to the movement and issued nonviolence through marches and boycotts. Nevertheless, the Civil Rights Movement (CRM) would have occurred with or without Martin Luther King Jr., but without King, the CRM would not have had the same impact on society. The first major campaign King was involved in was the Montgomery bus boycott, which occurred in the 1955-56. The bus boycott was started by the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) who instructed Rosa Park to refuse to give up her seat for a white person. NAACP constructed a legal court case against the segregation laws and the black people of Montgomery began to take direct action against bus companies by refusing to travel on the buses. This was affecting bus companies because more than half of their consumers were black people and so profit would be lost. King bought publicity to the bus boycott with his leadership and took the limelight away from the NAACP, who were behind the success of integration of buses. It was not the bus boycott alone that integrated buses, the NAACP taking litigation to the Supreme Court was vital because it changed desegregated buses. The bus boycott alone wouldn’t have changed segregation laws. According to Sanders, King was being credited for the integration of buses when it should have gone to the NAACP for starting the bus boycott and the activist, â€Å"it was a protest of the people†¦ not a one-man show.† This portraying King in being a glory-seeker who was only interested in self-promoting and gaining fame because it was the NAACP, rather than King who bought success to Montgomery. If black Americans were going to escape poverty and second class citizenship they would need education. Segregation of schools was claimed to be fair and equal, however, the black children attending black schools had poor funding compared to white children attending white schools. Oliver Brown with the help of the NAACP, not MLK, challenged the integration of school by drafting a successful court case to the Supreme Court, who declared that segregation was against the law and the constitution of the USA. The Board of Education in Topeka and other education boards had to be forced to integrate public schools. However, according to River Editors, â€Å"101 Southern politicians vowed to fight the decision, arguing it was contrary to the Constitution.† This showing that Southern politicians refused to implement the constitution. This may be the reason why in 1956 that there were six Southern states that did not have a single black child attending schools where there were white children. The NAACP are significant to the CRM because the organisation presses for civil rights legislation. Without the NAACP, the success of integrating schools and buses would not have happened. The organisation is vital to the CRM. NAACP had a great impact in changing the civil rights for black Americans because they gave them the chance of being educated in schools that would be for whites and to seat on buses without having to get up their seats for white people. American democracy was a model for those countries struggling against Soviet oppression so the treatment of black Americans portrayed America into being brutal to minority within its borders. There were communist propaganda used against the capitalism America, majority of them mentioning Jimmy Wilson. Dudziak states that Jimmy Wilson was â€Å"the centre of international attention† for being sentenced to death in Alabama for stealing less than two dollars of change. This was thought to be the most severe consequence of American racism. The petty crime bought to surface international concern because Wilson’s case received international coverage. There were critical articles being published in newspapers all across the world and the communist used Wilson’s story as propaganda. The Jimmy Wilson case bought publicity all around the world due to communist propaganda and aided the CRM. This showing that King is not the only one to bring publicity to the CRM. The March on Washington which was organised and successfully lead by King without the support from President Kennedy and Roy Wilkins. The aim of the March was to encourage to pass a civil rights bill through public relations, media attention gave the March national exposure because it impressed people all around the world. The March may have had a part in passing the Civil Rights Bill (CRB) of 1964 as it showed a united nation. President Kennedy death could be also credited in passing the CRB. When President Kennedy was assassinated, the bill was left in the hands of Vice President Lyndon Johnson. The civil rights bill passed could be a way to honour President Kennedy. The situation in Selma was that only 23 black Americans were registered to vote when there were 29,000. King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) made Selma, Alabama, the focus of its efforts to register black voters in the South. The March, protesters were attempting to March from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery and were met with violent resistance by state and local authorities. The world watched, the activists being attacked harshly when they were fighting for the right to vote. Selma made people at home feel uncomfortable with the state and local authorities’ treatment to innocent people. Along with the Civil Rights Bill, the Voting Rights Act was one of the most significance pieces of civil rights legislation. Its effects greatly reduced the disparity between black and white voters in the U.S. and allowed a greater number of African Americans to enter political life at the local, state and national level. According to Sanders, â€Å"Johnson a nd Congress probably would not have passed the Voting Rights Act without Selma.† This shows the importance of Selma had on the CRM because the Voting Rights Act is important because it takes away the second class citizenship and takes a leap to equality between the whites and blacks in America. Selma was about more than winning a federal act; it emphasised the political pressures King was negotiating between movement radicalism. Selma was a key to improving lives for black Americans since it was publicly televised around the world showing the treatment of innocence people making a stand for equality. It pushed the Voting Rights Act to enable black people the right to vote. However, Sanders also states that â€Å"Selma had raised a great deal of money because Selma was in the headlines, then the SCLC left and spent the money to the North.† The untrustworthy leadership of King had left the people in Selma to fund on their own for the right to vote. This shows that King cannot be trusted when he makes a public stand to help people in need. King and his SCLC were unsuccessful in Chicago, they overestimated the racism in the North. Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO) had encouraged and supported the SCLC in Chicago and were both out-witted by Mayor Daley. Black people living in Chicago lived in racial inequality, majority of black people in Chicago were living in slums. There were less press coverage on the Chicago Freedom Movement (CFM) and the federal government did not help the CFM because President Johnson was an ally of Mayor Daley, who threatened to fine people a great lot of money if they joined in the marches. This limited the activist because they couldn’t afford paying the fine when they are living in poverty. However, what occurred in Chicago was the purpose of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which is a legislation to provide equal housing opportunities. It made it legal for someone to be decimated for their race, or national origin when buying a house. It was a federal crime to force o r threaten injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone because of their race, colour, religion, or national origin. Overall, King is the one radiant name of the fight for racial equality that everyone knows, he stole the limelight from those that have been forgotten or who were not accorded the recognition they deserved. King played a wonderful leader for the CRM because he bought publicity through his peaceful protest and winning the Nobel Peace Prize. To have a day for himself shows the impact he made to the life of black Americans during the CRM. King may have helped the CRM before his assassination, but was given too much credit because others, such as Ralph Abernathy, Claudette Colvin, Kasturba Gandhi, Malcolm X and etc. where forgotten. After King’s death the life of black Americans did not brighten up because the fight for equality still occurring with new leaders.

Comparing difference essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Comparing difference - Essay Example While Ms. Gilman portrayed the development of postpartum depression and its aftermath in her main character Jane, who is also the narrator of the story, during an era when men ruled the world and women were expected to merely bear children and ensure that their husband was a success in life. It is because of this difference in the way that the topic of developing madness was dealt with and the complex issues surrounding it that made â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† the more prominent fictional study of the development of madness. " The Black Cat," and "The Yellow Wall Paper," display aspects of psychological issues; however, the complexity of these issues are more prominent in " The Yellow Wall Paper." In â€Å"The Black Cat†, Poe continues his tradition of recalling the spiral into madness of his lead characters through flashbacks detailing the events that led to the protagonists descent into madness. This is a trend that we can clearly see in his previous works such as â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† and â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart†. In â€Å"The Black Cat†, the only driving factor for the madness of the unnamed narrator seems to be the fact that he is alcoholic and as such, has delusions and suspicions about anything and everyone around him. Including, the black cat that was their family pet. As we can see in the following passage, the madness of the narrator was not brought about by any traumatic experience or frustration in life, but rather, because of his love of alcohol. He narrates: ..my disease grew upon me--for what disease is like Alcohol!--and at length even Pluto, who was now becoming old, and consequently somewhat peevish--even Pluto began to experience the effects of my ill temper. (Poe 2) This where the weakness of the development of the mental illness lies in Poes story. For just like in all his previous works, the reason for the onset of madness stems from the love of drink and th

Sex Predator - Societal Protection vs. Constitutional Rights Essay

Sex Predator - Societal Protection vs. Constitutional Rights - Essay Example Individuals who engage in sex crimes such as rape or child sex are known as sexual predators. However, the term may be applied depending on the moral beliefs and sometimes may not be a criminal behaviour. In communities, a predator may refer to somebody who seeks dominance or submission in an exploitative manner. The Constitution and the society have different views regarding sexual predators and the legality of the action. The sexual predator law, the statute mandates long periods of civil commitment for habitual sexual offenders and sexual psychopaths in their criminal sentences. For instance, in the US sexual predator laws were very popular in the 1990s although they led to constitutional questions (Carpenter, 2012). One of the concerns was the double jeopardy and the need to balance the rights of the offenders and those of the community in which they came from. The laws' strictness is due to the possibility of a sex offender repeating an action once released from prison and there fore, long-term jail period is necessary. The offenders also undergo screening to rule out the possibility of a mental disorder to the offender and give treatment before passing judgment. The state has the role of detaining the offender and give treatment until the individual is cured of the illness as explained by Bartol & Bartol (2012). The supreme court of the United States holds the Kansa’s sexual predator law, which requires the state prove mental abnormality as a before detainment of the offender.

Ancient Egyptian and Nubian Civilizations Essay

Ancient Egyptian and Nubian Civilizations - Essay Example The Old Testament refers to it as the kingdom of Cush and the Romans called it Nubia referring to its gold mines( Kasule 34). Excavations by the French archaeologists yielded exquisite ceramic figurines, funeral bric-a-brac and bowls that were dated at least during 8000 BC. Other archaelogists dug up great Nubian monuments such as parts of a magnificent temple, statues, pottery, jewelries and hosts of artifacts that convinced them that Nubia was the cradle of African civilization and the first black African civilization (Macleod, New York Times). Excavations in the Qustul cemetery by Keith Seele brought forth incense burners depicting a royal palace and a portrait of a king with the god Horus hovering above him. Other artifacts showed a monarchy that was even older than Egypt's and was perhaps the oldest recognizable monarchy in human history and was dated at 3300 BC or 3 generations before the first Egyptian king Scorpion in the 1st Dynasty. Many considered this Nubian civilization to be the Ta-Seti referred to in Egyptian writings (Renseberger, New York Times). So it is evident that the River Nile produced not one but two great civilizations. Later in this paper, we will prove that both civilizations were modified and perfected by the intermingling and influencing of one with the other and vice-versa. The Egyptian Civilization The River Nile was both a boon and a bane to the ancient Egyptians. Annually, between July and October, the Nile Valley, which is a ribbon of narrow, alluvial land measuring 2 to 3 miles in width from both banks of the Nile and extending some 12,000 sq. mi. from the Mediterranean to today's First Cataract, experiences inundation that washed away landmarks and destroyed properties. After the destruction loomed rich, fertile black land that stimulated3 agriculture(Grolier Universal Encyclopedia 77). Thus, the Nile represented a challenge and a development of all engineering, arithmetical, geometrical, surveying and other skills needed to control its unruly and temperamental nature. Thus, even during the predynastic Naqada period, papyrus writings showed that mathematical calculations including the use of decimals, fractions and the Pythagorean theorem were widely used. Because of the annual Nile deluge, Egyptians braced themselves from it and in the

Project Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Project Management - Essay Example Kerzner (2009) points out four different phases of the a project life cycle and these are the Conception Phase, Definition Phase, Execution Phase, and Operation Phase. On the other hand, Hira and Parfitt (2004) provide five phases in the project cycle which are Identification, Preparation, Appraisal, Implementation, and Evaluation. Perhaps the most popular view divides the project cycle into five stages, or process groups as some references have called them, which are initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing (Rubin, 1995; Owen & Rogers, 1999; Elia, 2004; Elearn Limited, 2005; Heldman, Baca, & Jansen, 2007; Sanghera, 2008; Mihelcic, 2009). Within these stages, there are also a set of processes involved that are part of the knowledge required to manage a particular project. These knowledge areas are Communication Management, Cost Management, Human Resource Management, Integration Management, Procurement Management, Risk Management, Scope Management, and Time Management (Sanghera, 2008). While a large portion of this paper will focus mainly on the different stages of the project cycle and the processes within each of these stages, the discussion will also incorporate these knowledge areas. ... s important that a particular emphasis is placed on this stage because if this stage is merely skimmed over because the group is rushing to get started on what most would perceive as the actual work, the group will have a hard time implementing the project, not to mention needing more time to achieve it and thus, the project will most likely fail. This is the phase which examines and decides whether the project is worth doing or not. This process group provides approval to commit the organization’s resources to working on the project or phase (Heldman, Baca, & Jansen, 2007). The most important objectives of the project are identified and defined and financial commitments are undertaken to determine exactly what resources will be needed to complete the project (Elia, 2004). The project manager is assigned and authorized to begin working on the project. This is also the stage where the expectations for the project are formalized and communicated to all of the stakeholders. More specifically, the processes involved in this stage include the development of the project charter and the preliminary project scope statement, which are covered by the knowledge area of integration management (Sanghera, 2008). These outputs become inputs into the Planning process group. The Initiation phase for a contractor most likely starts once the firm is awarded a contract and has received a notice to proceed. Sometimes, there are also companies who move forward with less certain conditions. The estimate now becomes a project and a job or work order number is given to it. The project manager is assigned who then prepares to receive the handoff, or the transitional stage between project phases, from the estimating department (Elia, 2004). Planning The planning phase is which involves the

Trade Positions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Trade Positions - Essay Example 1)†. Of course Obama has not given any direct plans for how he wants to strengthen the weakening dollar or how he plans to create an agenda of fair trade over the ideals of free trade that have existed for many years in American regional and international relationships. However, he does plan to make America more competitive by focusing government policies towards the growing sectors of the global economy where technology and research will play a vital part. Energy, education, innovation and the building of new infrastructure appear to be important causes for him in economic and trade related terms. The trade issues which seem closest to Obamas heart are the unfair deals which the US has entered into particularly with countries such as Japan and South Korea. He has recently said that both nations have created â€Å"all kinds of restrictions and barriers (Rohter, 2008, Pg. 1)† to fair trade between them and America. At the same time, Obama also appears to be pandering to those individuals who depend on free trade as it currently stands since he has said that, â€Å"I believe in free trade. It can save money for our consumers, generate business for U.S. exporters and expand global wealth (Walsh, 2008, Pg. 1)†. However, as discussed by Harris (2008) and Walsh (2008) it seems that Obama is trying to please both sides of the divide on free trade. In March, Harris (2008) suggested that the real position taken by Obama might be closer to the present stance of the government with superficial modifications if he is elected president. This is because leaked discussions between an Obama aide and Canadian officials show that the public comments made by him may not be the exact policies which his government may follow. The position on trade taken by the American communist party is in line with the popular communist agenda where trade is seen as a necessity but is also a tool with which the resources of a

The Power of Thinking Without Thinking by Gladwell, Malcolm Essay - 1

The Power of Thinking Without Thinking by Gladwell, Malcolm - Essay Example Gladwell talks about the â€Å"storytelling problem† which is essentially a concept that tells how humans develop wrong accounts of their choices and attitudes. Humans create stories unconsciously which support their decisions and actions. I do believe that the state of mind an individual is has a great impact on his/her decision-making skills, and the state of mind is controlled to a large extent by the environment. The author’s process as a writer was generally quite fair. I agree with most of the author’s points, though I slightly disagree occasionally. What I like about it is that the author has attempted to make the audiences realize the impact of the environment on their decisions that they conventionally consider coming entirely from them. This suggests that selection of the right place and the right time are pre-requisites of making a right decision. I find the storytelling problem a little confusing because I personally don’t quite agree that humans tend to develop wrong accounts of their own  behaviors.  

Erosion Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Erosion - Lab Report Example For instance, a young school aged boy did an experiment in his own backyard, right in the middle of the garden. He packed a mound of dirt, and his plan was to measure the affects of erosion over a twelve week period, caused by elements of the weather-the wind and the rain. When his experiment began, the mound of dirt was 42 inches wide and 19 and inches tall. The second week, the dirt mound had spread more than 2 inches outward and dropped approximately 3 inches. Each week, measurements were taken and the data was charted. Unfortunately, the experiment was never finished because it was wrecked (Riordin). Nevertheless, it showed how the elements of the weather can have a great affect on bare soiled mounds, such as the one that was constructed in the Riordin's garden. On a larger and more professional scale than that of a school boy, scientific researchers across the United States experimented with erosion. Their reason for doing so is because they wanted to understand how erosion affected different types of soil in an effort to improve agriculture. In this instance, they wanted to figure out how to best deal with the effects of erosion, while conserving water and soil at the same time. From this in depth experimentation, The Universal Soil Loss Equation was developed, which is considered by those in the field of agriculture to be one of the greatest developments in history, as it concerns the conservation of soil and water (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2009). Research began in central Utah in the year 1912 on land that was overgrazed and no longer fit for use at the time. A.W. Sampson and Associates were the ones who conducted experiments during this time and at this location. In 1917, field erosion plot research was conducted in Missouri by M. F. Miller and his other colleagues. In 1929, congress provided $160,000 of funding to erosion research, as a result of the severe drought that was faced, as well as the Dust Bowl storms that took place. As resource continued, the equation was perfected, and so were water and soil conservation methods. Today, software has been designed from this exact equation that is in use by the Department of Agriculture, as well as commercial farmers (U.S. department of Agriculture, 2009) Because we are working with stiff time constraints, we will not be able to conduct such long and drawn out experiments. We must experiment with erosion on a smaller time scale, and the experiment must take place in an environment that we can easily control. The experiment that is being conducted in this case will consist of three dirt mounds, ten inches high, that are built upon a tray lined with paper, all of them constructed differently. One dirt mound will consist of dirt that is packed together to form a sort-of mountain. The sides will be steep, and the top will be flat. The second mound will be constructed exactly the same; however, there will be a flat layer of pottery clay on top of the flat part of the mound. The third mound will be constructed in the same fashion as the other two, but this one will have grass seed planted on it. The seed will be planted on top, as well as on all sides. The dirt is to be a bit wet, but not too wet, so as to be able to properly form the mound s. All three of the mounds will be kept near a sunny window to simulate the environment of nature outdoors, as this type of environment is realistic, as it will enable the grass to grow and the artificial rain to dry up. Once all mounds are formed and the experiment

Homeland Security Strategies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Homeland Security Strategies - Research Paper Example Introduction The United States of America Department of Homeland Security has been tasked with ensuring the security of the American citizens and their property. One might argue that the Department is only tasked with counter terrorism measures but this is wrong. The Department of Homeland Security is mandated by an act of Congress to ensure that the United States of America is safe domestically. The fact that terrorism is the major threat facing not only the United States domestic security, but even that of all other countries in the world, results in the notion among many people that the Department of Homeland Security is only in charge of fighting terrorism. However, the Department of Homeland Security is tasked with five major responsibilities. They include: protecting citizens of the United States of America from terrorist threats, securing of the United States of America Borders, facilitating legal migration and cracking down on illegal immigration, developing an urgent sense o f readiness, and finally unification and maturation of the Department (Haulley, 2005). When one considers the five responsibilities then it is safe to conclude that the department of Homeland security is not only tasked with preventing terror attacks but also other threats such as natural disasters. This paper will discuss the different strategies that the Department of Homeland Security employs to ensure that it is successful in executing its duties. Surveillance One strategy that the Department of Homeland Security has used profoundly is surveillance. This is where the department uses agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gather intelligence both domestic and foreign that is viewed to be of national security importance by the Department of Homeland Security. Surveillance techniques such as electronic surveillance have been widely used by the Department to follow and intercept conversations of those who are believed to pose a threat to the domestic security of the United of America. This strategy was rampantly used after the September 11th attacks on the United States of America especially during the Bush administration. This is so since the administration allowed the department through the National Security Agency (NSA) to carry out electronic surveillance of terror suspects without the need of any warrant. This strategy can be considered as one of the strategies that have yielded a lot of positive results in the efforts of the Department of Homeland Security in securing the lives and property of Americans from terrorist attacks. For example, according to the director of National Security Agency (NSA), electronic surveillance efforts have resulted in the prevention of numerous terrorist attacks both abroad and domestic on United States of America citizens (Homeland Security News Wire, 2013). Another way that the Department of Homeland Security has employed Surveillance as a strategy of ensuring Natio nal Security is the use of Drones to spy on terrorist groups such as Al-Qaida that operate in foreign countries. Drones are unmanned airplanes that are used by the United States of America government to either spy or attack. These drones have been used to establish the activities of such terrorist groups. The Department of Homeland Security has also used satellites to perform surveillance on its

How New York Times vs Sullivan changed political thinking Essay Example for Free

How New York Times vs Sullivan changed political thinking Essay The history of the American nation has been evidently marked with many landmarks legal interpretations of its constitution. The case of New York Times vs. Sullivan is one good example of landmark cases which greatly changed the political thinking of the American population. It is clear from the underlying proceedings of the Supreme Court on the case that the legal understanding of the first and fourth amendments of the civil right bill is not to allow any recovery for media reports unless the complainant can sufficiently prove acts of malice when making the defamatory report (FindLaw, 2010). This is what marked the many historical appreciations of the media freedom in our legal justice system. It is indeed a direct result of this 1964 ruling that the media gain freedom to sufficient cover the proceedings of civil rights movement thus aiding in the realization of the ultimate inclusion of the black American’s right to the civil rights in the American constitution. This essay is written as a critical analysis of the New York Times vs. Sullivan and how it evidently changed political thinking in America. The author first gives an analytical discussion on the underlying facts presented in the case. A discussion on how the case set a precedent for public officials and how that is just another thing to consider for public figures getting into politics is also given Summary of the New York Times vs. Sullivan case 1. The trial courts judgment The case of New York Times vs. Sullivan involved a claim by New York Times in an advertisement that the arrest of Martin Luther king junior was a campaign to compromise his efforts in encouraging the blacks to vote (FindLaw, 2010). The advert claimed that the Montgomery police had been allegedly directed their acts against students who were involved in the civil rights demonstrations. The led to the filing of defamation case against New York Times by Sullivan, a commissioner in the police department at Montgomery (Shah Anderson, 2007). It is however here to be made clear that the advert was not directly mentioning Sullivan but Sullivan claimed that it was targeting him since he was the chief supervision of the police department in Montgomery. he low court trial judge in Alabaman found the New York Times guilty of committing an actual malice defamatory statements against a public officer and ordered them to pay Sullivan damage worthy half a million US dollars. 2. The Supreme Court’s judgment and its reflection on the first and fourteenth amendment It is however to be realized that the New York Times did not accept the lower court jury’s judgment thus forcing to file an appeal with the supreme cour t in the quest realizing a fair and just judgment (Tysoe, 2008). At the Supreme Court, the judges clearly confirmed that the provisions of the first amendment of the civil rights bill did not allow a public officer to be granted damages for defamation unless he or she clearly proves that such statements were made will actual malice against them. Still citing the fourteenth amendment to the constitution, the court ruled out that the states is not obliged to award damages for defamation to a public offices based on falsified claims unless the officers sufficiently proves actual malice in the statements (Shah Anderson, 2007). It is also clear from the proceedings at the Supreme Court that an individual statement can never its protection under the American constitution even if it appears in the form of a paid advert. The judges claimed that it is not the purpose of the government to judge the truth and that a public officer must live to take critics from the public unless they can sufficiently proof malicious acts in the statements (Write Lidsky, 2004). It was evidently claimed that any act of allowing Sullivan to be paid damages for insufficiently qualified claims of malice could act as a loophole for compromising any future critics to public officers. Still to be noted here is the fact that such any act could greatly compromise genuine critics for fear of intimidation, a move which could evidently compromise the just and fair provision of services by public officers to the general public. It is based on this reasons that the Supreme Court ruled against the lower courts ruling thus favoring New York Times. How New York Times vs. Sullivan set a precedent for public officials The first lesson is that it became evidently clear that a public official is subject to public criticism. It is quite clear from existing historical information that the realization of just and fair rules and regulations in the American nation has never been without social movements. Still clear is the fact that such realizations were heavily compromised with public office power interferences (Wright Lidsky, 2004). The civil right movement of the twentieth century is no exception to this. It is based on this reasoning and by applying the principles of conclusion by sufficient reasoning that the 1964 interpretation of the American constitution served to protect the political elite and/or public officials from imposing force to the public. Another change that was brought by the impact of the New York Times vs. Sullivan case ruling is that the political elite in the community must be role models (Tysoe, 2008). It is found in the proceedings of the Supreme Court ruling that public officials should be open to critics from the public domain. This was made to emphasis the fact that such are the leaders who should lead the American nation to the next level of fairness and justice for all in the society. It was only by instilling the fact that the general public has a constitutional right to critique their leaders that political comments made by leaders are subject to self liability. This is what has made the political elite of the American nation respectful of the constitutional provisions thus sufficiently realizing greater levels of justice and fairness in the society (Melbourne University Law Review, 2001). Still proved by the case is the fact that sufficiently prove of defamation by actual malice is the ultimate reason for claiming legal awarding of damages (Melbourne University Law Review, 2001). The proceedings at the Supreme Court clearly established that the constitutional protection of claimed statement can not be negated due to the fact that such have been expressed in the context of a paid advertisement. This clear makes public officials subject to proving of actual malice in their damage claim suits. It is to be clearly noted that most true expression which go to the media can be easily disputed by the source (FindLaw, 2010). However, the question of whether or not to get defamatory damages remains subject to the provision of substantial evidence proving actual malice in the presentation of the expressions. How New York Times vs. Sullivan is just another thing to consider for public figures getting into politics The ruling in the case of the New York Times vs. Sullivan also instilled the lesson that no one in the American land is above the rule of law as provided in the constitution. Clear from the ruling of the lower court, it can be claimed that the jury sort less evidence to make the judgment in favor of Sullivan (Wright Lidsky, 2004). This could be closely attributed to the fact that the government was out to control the progression of the Martin Luther King led civil rights movement. It is however clear from the Supreme Court judgment that despite such previous rulings on the case the constitutional provisions must be respected and applied equally to all in the society (Melbourne University Law Review, 2001). The provision for proving actual malice for compensation of defamation of an individual’s reputation should equally respect all even the politically advantaged in the society. It is this that made political influence on justice provisions mitigated thus respecting the rule of rule as reflected in the constitutional provision for independence of the judiciary. Another lesson from the case is that of limiting claim for awarding damage due to purported defamatory speech (Tysoe, 2008). From the advertisement that led to the defamation claims by Sullivan, it is quite clear that it claimed to be the onset of a new pattern of modern freedom. According to the ruling of the Supreme Court, it is quite clear that the constitution sufficiently protects the human right to speech. It is due to this that it found no sufficient claim of defamation in Sullivan’s claims due to the fact that the students involve were being deprived of their constitutional right to speech (Shah Anderson, 2007). It is based on this reasoning that the ruling changing our political approaches to reflective our constitutional right to speech. The last lesson from the case ruling is that it made it clear that freedom of the press must be respected. It is to be noted here that the sole duties of the media is to provide news to the general public on occurrences around them. It is due to this reason that any act of compromise quality and accuracy of such news must be mitigated. Still to be understood here is the fact that the advertisement published by the New York Times was made for overseeing the fair and just execution of the underlying demands of the civil rights movement (Melbourne University Law Review, 2001). This is what made the ruling a greatly political influence blow in civil matters. Still realized from the ruling is the ultimate realizing of freedom of press. Indeed the New York Times vs. Sullivan led to the protection of the media against intimidation in covering the civil rights movement.  It is thus clear that the ruling changed the perception the political and public officials had with regard to the media in the society. Conclusion In conclusion, it has been clearly established that the Supreme Court ruling in the case of the New York Times vs. Sullivan marked the dawn of respect for freedom to speech and the press by public officials. It is thus clear that such a case qualifies to be a landmark case in the history of the American nation. It is this court ruling which mitigated misuse of public office and/or political power to impose legal awards for damages without sufficiently prove of actual malice.

Police Brutality Essay Example for Free

Police Brutality Essay Philadelphia is located in New Jersey on the eastern sea board of the United States. This makes it an ideal location for immigrants from Nigeria to choose as an entry point into the US. This inflows has led to an over stretch in the social amenities. In so far as Nigerians perform the jobs Americans do not want, the fact that they do not pay taxes means they cannot contribute to the growth of Philadelphia. The police force on their part is predominantly white. They are not trained on how to deal with the new population. How to be sensitive to their culture and beliefs. Since the arrivals are also not very at par with the American culture, this breeds a society that coexists but does not know how to interact and appreciate each other. This has led to an increase in police brutality especially among Nigerian males of ages 15-70. Both sides feel they are mis-understood-the police are trying to keep the peace, while the Nigerians are trying to make ends meet. While there are more obvious signs of harassments against people deemed black (African-Americans and Native Americans) as opposed to whites to begin with, xenophobia (undue fear or contempt of that which is foreign, especially of strangers or foreign peoples) is more prominent against those foreigners who also happen to have darker skins which naturally includes Africans, Mexicans, Jamaicans, Carib-Africans, Haitians, Indians (from India), So. Americans, etc. nd other non-Caucasian races. Africans, who naturally fit into the black quota, therefore get a double-whammy should they encounter a police officer who has xenophobia, and Nigerians who have encountered harassment incidences have noted this as a prevailing factor in the course of their being harassed. Distinct accents are a dead give away and a xenophobic officer would have a field day should he encounter one whom he fears and thus portrays hatred towards (www. igeriansinamerica. com). There is need to train the police force on the necessity to overcome Xenophobia amongst its officers. Also, more black offices must be employed and an effort be made to assign them to work in black communities and neighborhoods, to increase the acceptance of the police as a law enforcement agency.

Analysis Of Leadership Styles Politics Essay

Analysis Of Leadership Styles Politics Essay This report was commissioned to represent comparative analysis of leadership styles of two presidents of the United States of America that is one ex-president George W. Bush and current president Barack H. Obama. The object of discussion is to compare and contrast leadership qualities of both presidents based on basic leadership theories that were introduced in literature review: Great Man theory, traits theory, and behavioral approach, contingency, transformational and transactional theories. As per requirements it was done the introduction of the background of two personalities including their childhood, university years and career. It was done overview of leadership qualities of them where B. Obama is represented as a political leader with good political skills, great ability to public communication, organizational capacity and emotional intelligence and G.W. Bush as a leader with prominent political vision and skills. Except that it was expressed my own opinion about two leaders where is the most admirable politician is George W. Bush who is top-down, no-nonsense, decisive, macho leader who sets his eye on the far horizon and doesnt go wobbly getting there. In a conclusion it is essential to say that The President of the United States of America is granted significant powers by the Constitution and exercises others by tradition and precedent. He has to inspire the confidence of the people. Every President has to become a leader, and to be a leader he must attract people who are willing to follow him. INTRODUCTION Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and their collaborators who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes( Komives, Woodard, 2003). Leader are somebody whom people follow and guide people. Leaders are the head of the nation, political party, legislative body or military unit. A type of Leader is  determined and identified by the core trait  that  is  emphasized and  by the  combination of other core traits that are  displayed and used to gain the trust of the people and Lead them to undertake the major task facing the organization(www.scribd.com) Some characteristics of leaders: Leaders are essential for setting the company vision, assessing where the company stands and making difficult choices. Leaders must be able to pull a team together, solve problems and develop strategies. Leaders Challenge people. Leaders build their peoples Confidence. Leaders Coach the people they lead. Leaders challenge people by bringing them out of their comfort zones, enabling people to reach successes that they never thought they could achieve. Leaders boost confidence and put their faith in their people to deliver the goal. Leaders reward intelligent failures, or the sincere effort to achieve, even if the effort may fail. Leaders communicate a clear and compelling vision to challenge people to think and act differently as they pursue a new agenda. BACKGROUND Barack Obama Obama is actually of mixed heritage. He was born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii. His father Barack Obama Senior was from Kenya and Obamas mother, Ann Durham, was originally from Kansas. The marriage between Obamas parents was a short-lived one, however. In the early 1960s, interracial relationships were still quite rare in many parts of America, and even technically illegal in some states. When Obama was two years old they divorced, and his father left Hawaii to enter Harvard University to earn a Ph.D. in economics. The two Baracks met again only once, when Obama was ten, though they did write occasionally. Barack Sr. eventually returned to Kenya and died in a car accident there in the early 1980s. Obamas mother remarried a man from Indonesia who worked in the oil industry, and when Obama was six they moved there. The family lived near the capital of Jakarta, where his half-sister Maya was born. At the age of ten, Obama returned to Hawaii and lived with his maternal grandparents. Obama entered in kindergarten level in Noelani Elementary school located at Honolulu, Hawaii and then from first to fourth grade he done education in Jakarta, Indonesia. Fifth through twelfth grade he done education again in Honolulu, Hawaii. Obama got High school diploma from Punahou and went on to Occidental College in Los Angeles, where he decided to get serious about his studies. Midway through, he transferred to the prestigious Columbia University in New York City. After he earned his undergraduate degree in political science, he became a community organizer in Harlem-but quickly realized he could not afford to live in the city with a job that paid so little. Instead, he moved to Chicago to work for a church-based social-services organization there. Obama applied to and was accepted at Harvard Law School. In 1990, he was elected president of the Harvard Law Review journal (http://www.notablebiographies.com). Also during his law school years, Obama spent eight days in Los Angeles taking a national training course on Alinsky methods of organizing(Lizza, Ryan, 2007). Barack Hussein Obama was elected the 44th president of the United States on November 2008(http://www.nytimes.com). George Walker Bush He was born in New Haven, Connecticut on 1946. Bush was the first child of George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with his four siblings. Bushs grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut. Bushs father, George H. W. Bush, served as U.S. Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and U.S. President from 1989 to 1993 ( Clarita, CalBoyer, 1995). As a child, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas until the family moved to Houston after he completed seventh grade. He then went to The Kinkaid School, a prep school in Houston, for two years (http://www.lib.utexas.edul). Bush finished his high school years at Phillips Academy. Bush attended Yale University from 1964 to 1968, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history. During this time, he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon, being elected the fraternitys president during his senior year. He characterized himself as an average student. Beginning in the fall of 1973, Bush at tended the Harvard Business School, where he earned an MBA. He was the only U.S. President to have earned an MBA(http://www.americanthinker.com). In May 1968, Bush was commissioned into the Texas Air National Guard. After two years of active-duty service while training, he was assigned to Houston, flying Convair F-102s out of Ellington Air Force Base. In October 1973, Bush was discharged from the Texas Air National Guard and transferred to inactive duty in the Air Force Reserve. He was honorably discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21, 1974, at the end of his six-year service obligation (http://www.dod.mil). He married on November 1977. In 1982 he would have a twin daughter. George W. Bush served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001-2009. MAIN BODY 3.1 Theories on Leadership Leadership has different meaning to different authors. Harry Truman, the American President, said that leadership is the ability to get men (women) to do what they dont like to do and like it (Greenstein, 1989). Leadership is defined as influence, that is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals(Koontz, Weihrich, 2006). So a good leader is a maker of men, developer of subordinates and creator of worthy lieutenants. The activities of successful effective leaders: H:College filecollege fileSemester 5MLSAssignmentUntitled.png (function() { var scribd = document.createElement("script"); scribd.type = "text/javascript"; scribd.async = true; scribd.src = "https://www.scribd.com/javascripts/embed_code/inject.js"; var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(scribd, s); })() John Adair has a long pedigree in the world of leadership. The Adair model is that the action-centered leader gets the job done through the work team and relationships with fellow managers and staff. According to Adairs explanation an action-centered leader must: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ direct the job to be done (task structuring) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ support and review the individual people doing it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ co-ordinate and foster the work team as a whole TEAM TASK INDIVIDUAL The challenge for the leader is to manage all sectors of the diagram: Task define the task make the plan allocate work and resources control quality and rate of work check performance against plan adjust the plan Team maintain discipline build team spirit encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose appoint sub-leaders ensure communication within group develop the group Individual attend to personal problems praise individuals give status recognise and use individual abilities develop the individual A review of the leadership literature reveals an evolving series of schools of thought from Great Man and Trait theories to Transformational leadership (see table). Whilst early theories tend to focus upon the characteristics and behaviors of successful leaders, later theories begin to consider the role of followers and the contextual nature of leadership (Gronn, 1995). Great Man Theories Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term man was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life Behavioral Theories These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as styles of leadership. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers Contingency Theory This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances Transactional Theory This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers Transformational Theory The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organisational performance From Great Man to Transformational Leadership Each of these theories takes a rather individualistic perspective of the leader, although a school of thought gaining increasing recognition is that of dispersed leadership. This approach, with its foundations in sociology, psychology and politics rather than management science, views leadership as a process that is diffuse throughout an organisation rather than lying solely with the formally designated leader. The emphasis thus shifts from developing leaders to developing leaderful organisations with a collective responsibility for leadership. Trait Theories Trait theories of leadership sought personality, social, physical or intellectual traits that differentiate leaders from non leaders. Trait view has little analytical or predictive value. Technical, conceptual and human skills (Katz, 1974). People are born with inherited traits. Some traits are particularly suited to leadership. People who make good leaders have the right combination of traits. Traits Skills à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Adaptable to situations à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Alert to social environment à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Ambitious and achievement-orientated à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Assertive à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Cooperative à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Decisive à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Dependable à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Dominant (desire to influence others) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Energetic (high activity level) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Persistent à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Self-confident à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Tolerant of stress à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Willing to assume responsibility à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Clever (intelligent) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Conceptually skilled à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Creative à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Diplomatic and tactful à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Fluent in speaking à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Knowledgeable about group task à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Organized administrative ability) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Persuasive à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Socially skilled Behavioral Theories Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do. If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt the more ephemeral traits or capabilities. Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made. Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught. Ohio State Studies Initiating Structure The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment. Consideration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas, and regard for their feelings. University of Michigan Studies Employee-Oriented Leader Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members. Production-Oriented Leader One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.H:College filecollege fileSemester 5MLSAssignmentbehaviour.jpg (function() { var scribd = document.createElement("script"); scribd.type = "text/javascript"; scribd.async = true; scribd.src = "https://www.scribd.com/javascripts/embed_code/inject.js"; var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(scribd, s); })() Contingency Theories Fiedlers Contingency Model The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leaders style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader (Brooks, 2007). Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented. Leader-Member Relations The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader. Task Structure The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized. Position Power Influence derived from ones formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases. H:College filecollege fileSemester 5MLSAssignmentcontingency.jpg (function() { var scribd = document.createElement("script"); scribd.type = "text/javascript"; scribd.async = true; scribd.src = "https://www.scribd.com/javascripts/embed_code/inject.js"; var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(scribd, s); })() Transactional Theories Transactional leadership models treat the process of leading as a cross between a social and business transaction. There are specific hierarchies and structures in which some people are leaders and others are followers. A leader and follower agree to a contract. The latter is responsible for following orders to do a job, and the former provides rewards for proper execution of responsibilities. The difficulty in transactional leadership is that the concept doesnt apply well to all circumstances or cultures. For example, job-performance-and-reward model doesnt pertain to volunteer efforts, where the reward is usually something other than what the leader can directly provide (http://www.everything.com). Transactional leadership seeks to motivate followers by appealing to their own self-interest. Transactional leaders use conventional reward and punishment to gain compliance from their followers. Transformational theories James MacGregor Burns first introduced the concept of transformational leadership in his book Leadership (1978), but this term is now used in organizational psychology as well. He described it not as a set of specific behaviours, but rather an ongoing process by which leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation. Transformational leaders offer a purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on higher order intrinsic needs. Transformational leaders raise the bar by appealing to higher ideals and values of followers. In doing so, they may model the values themselves and use charismatic methods to attract people to the values and to the leader. There are four components of transformational leadership, which are: Tab.1 3.2 OBAMA LEADERSHIP QUALITIES President Barack Obama has gotten the attention of Americans and foreigners alike due to his charismatic nature. A charismatic approach is transformational if it invokes a permanent change in the people who embrace the leaders vision. Thus far, President Obama has woed many to his vision which has the potential to make a huge difference in both domestic and foreign affairs. Barack Obama is a fascinating political leader. Obama have some following leadership qualities. Public Communication Organizational Capacity Emotional Intelligence Political Skill Cognitive Style http://www.usnews.com President Obamas frankness is also another key that sets him apart from countless other politicians. By communicating his goal honestly and clearly, listeners are able to sense his sincerity and will tend to trust him more. This is opposed to many others who choose not to come clean regarding certain ulterior motives, apparent as they may be, and this only mean that listeners are less willing to trust them wholeheartedly. Barak Obama also scores well in terms of being able to delegate tasks to more capable hands, and concerns himself more with the direction setting and visioning of the nation. In higher management, delegation is a crucial skill to master in order to be effective (http://www.leadership-lessons.com).   Apart this Barack Obama has some special qualities in his life as well that shows his leaders nature. He is not afraid to be surrounded by other brilliant people from whom he gets advice.   He learns new things from them.   He goes to meetings with an open heart.   He is not stuck up with ego.   He is willing to learn new things.   He is willing to listen. He has gone through the steps of learning, growing, teaching, writing, earning and gaining trust and support etc.   He is a seeker of challenges (http://hubpages.com). BUSH LEADERSHIP QUALITIES George Walker Bush has embraced a command-and-control style that sharply challenges much of todays conventional wisdom about leadership and indeed is a marked departure from other recent presidents. Bush is a top-down, no-nonsense, decisive, macho leader who sets his eye on the far horizon and doesnt go wobbly getting there. He is crisp and can be confrontational, expecting others to follow or get out of the way. He is a big-picture fellow who learned in business school and in Austin to focus on only two or three goals at a time and pursue them fiercely, seeing other issues as distractions. Once he sets a course, he may try his hand at public persuasion. But if people dont swing behind him, he plunges ahead anyway, trusting that they will catch up later. Bush has indeed moved quickly to set his course and stick to it. He has let things languish and pushed problems to the future. He has also not hesitated to switch positions when necessary, such as when he first opposed, and then backed, the creation of a Homeland Security Department. He is a person who, once he picks a goal, never looks back. Even strong supporters sometimes worry that his curiosity and patience seem limited, while detractors see him as intellectually lazy and dependent on ideology and sloganeering instead of realism and clear thinking. Because he has a relatively small set of advisers, dissenting voices are effectively muffled (http://www.washingtonpost.com). Far more important to him than the art of persuasion, or so it appears, is discipline of message. Bush had waged a highly disciplined campaign that focused on a few core issues. Yet in his three debates with Al Gore, Bush had come across to many as unprepared for the job. Occasionally, Bush made his trademark smirk, a gesture that many took as a sign of arrogance. Bush described himself as a compassionate conservative (http://www.ontheissues.org). There are some following leadership qualities. Public Communication Policy Vision Political Skills Organizational Capacity http://writ.news.findlaw.com Compare with Leadership Qualities Transformational theory Peter Northouse (2004) wrote that transformational leadership is the process whereby an individual engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower. Obama has benefited from skillful oratory, personal charm and charisma. He has mixed old and new media strategies to sustain and build popular support. Obama and his communications team have been clever at devising novel ways to present Obama in a sympathetic light. In confronting the contemporary era of fragmented media of communication, the president has shown a savvy ability to find the audience, as opposed to expecting the audience to come to him (Woolley, Peters, 2009). George W. Bush likes to consider himself a transformational leader. His supporters like to compare him to Reagan and Truman with the implicit premise that history will also treat him kindly after a rough spell in the polls but in fact he is not like that. He highly religious and moralistic but at the same time he is poor manager, failing to organize diverse information flows in his administration, and he is resistant to new ideas. George W. Bush is failed as a transformational leader since he was running against the odds (Bass, Riggio, 2006). Contingency theory The basic promise of contingency theory is that effective leadership is contingent upon matching leaders style to the right setting. Barak Obama showed a distinct ability to alter his leadership style to fit a situation on at least three occasions. First, while presiding over a town hall meeting in Fort Meyer, Florida, President Obama demonstrated the tender side of leadership by delivering a genuine kiss of compassion to a woman struggling to overcome economic hard times and the embarrassing stigma of being homeless. Secondly, on his first trip to the G20 summit in Europe. President Obama discerned that the Prime Minister of France and the Premier of China were at an impasse over a certain deal at which time he showed a sense of cross cultural leadership by gently calling the two aside to a corner and brokering a deal between them. Third, as aforementioned, President Obama flexed his presidential biceps to force Chrysler into bankruptcy, both Chrysler and GM out of NASCAR, and both Chrysler and GM accept new MPG fuel standards (Coggins, 2009). In comparison with B. Obama G.W. Bush leads by definition. His leadership posture has arguably set a new standard in immunizing the presidency from the risks of todays hyper-politicized, media-exposed environment.   His success is traced to several factors: his personal political experiences, the imperative of defining political issues and opponents during the revitalization of the conservative movement, and the GOPs control of American national government. G.W. Bush is one of a long line of orthodox innovators in American presidential history.   Like other presidents who led by tying themselves to their political base while seeking to go beyond orthodoxyincluding James Polk, Theodore Roosevelt, and Lyndon JohnsonPresident Bush faces the challenge of redeeming old promises while responding to the demand for something new( Skowronek, 2005). Behavioral leadership From behavioral perspective of leadership Obama successes as a leader. He is: Attention Grabber. Knows how to make the best use of any opportunity give. Persistent He does not lose hope after he lost the election US congress and then won in the senate elections by a large margin. He is a self aware and most importantly has the ability to tie his own experience into a political speech in which he portrays himself as an ordinary citizen, speaking for the general public. As a manager it might not effect whether you portray yourself as a common man or not but as a leader it is very important to relate the common man (http://www.slideshare.net). From behavioural perspective of leadership B. Obama shows himself as a democratic leader. Obama touted his abilities to solve problems in a bipartisan way, to take on special interest groups, and to restore Americas standing globally, while giving average citizens a voice. This dates back to my history as a community organizer and my belief that if ordinary people participate we get better outcomes, he said. Temperamentally, Im someone who tries to seek common ground, he said. I tend not to demonize people who dont agree with me, but try to find areas of overlap. Im not an ideological person; I try to make decisions based on facts, what works and what doesnt. (http://www.concordmonitor.com). G.W. Bush in contrast to Obama is autocratic leader. Bush is resolute in his decisions and ultimately does not look for, or care to truly consider opinions that run counter to his desires. He wants to propagate freedom without seeming to understand the fundamentals of liberty. It isnt all about bombs and tanks and diplomacy from the working end of a gun. It is about unrestricted exchange. It is about occupying real estate where reasonable people publicly tussle over tough ideas. It is opinion given unadorned rather than served with ginned up intelligence or hidden behind executive privilege and presidential clemency or warrant-less wiretaps. Freedom as trite as it sounds requires vigilance and oversight. 3.4. Opinion about George Walker Bush Leadership Style George Bush has embraced a command-and-control style that sharply challenges much of todays conventional wisdom about leadership. There are some qualities that I consider as admirable for me. Bush is a top-down, no-nonsense, decisive, macho leader who sets his eye on the far horizon and doesnt go wobbly getting there. He is crisp and can be confrontational, expecting others to follow or get out of the way. He asks questions and actively listens before he decides, but he doesnt agonize, and once the decision is made, he doesnt brook internal dissent. He happily delegates details, but he monitors his team closely. If they swerve off course, he snaps them back into line. Once he sets a course, he may try his hand at public persuasion. But if people dont swing behind him, he plunges ahead anyway, trusting that they will catch up later. Far more important to him than the art of persuasion, or so it appears, is discipline of message. He has learned through experience that if he and his team repeat a clear, simple message long enough, the public is much more likely to give him permission to act, even if they arent fully persuaded. One more admirable quality is that as he imposes a demanding physical regime upon himself, he also insists that his team stick to a script and drill it home repeatedly. He is slow to trust and has a long memory for those who cross him or his family, but he is devoted to those who are faithful. Loyalty to the man, loyalty to the mission, loyalty to the message, you dont stay on his team long unless you get with the program. Bush also has nerve. If he thinks the mission important enough, he will take a risk even put his presidency on the line. So what if no president since Franklin Roosevelt has picked up congressional seats in his first mid-term election? So what if I risk embarrassment by campaigning hard for Republicans? Lets rev up Air Force One and barnstorm the country. Thats the way Bush acts, and more often than not as in the 2002 election, he wins his bets (Gergen, 2003). George W. Bush has displayed a natural ability to lead. Through his skillful use of timeless management principles and his powerful people skills, Bush has proven to be a genius at leadership. The Leadership Genius of George W. Bush reveals the unwavering leadership principles of the first President with an MBA and illustrates how he uses them to operate within the arenas of politics, business, and life (Bennis, Thomas, 2002). Conclusion The President of the United States of America is granted significant powers by the Constitution and exercises others by tradition and precedent. However, success exercising these powers has varied widely from one President to the next. Harnessing the powers of the presidency and managing the sprawling executive branch take a great deal of skill and determination. Indeed Presidents face a host of challenges as they attempt to lead the nation and its people. They must work with others in the separated system of American government. They must constantly deal with a wide range of complex domestic and foreign policy problems which tend to arise at the worst possible times. They must try to organize and lead an executive branch which often does not want to follow. And they must try to lead a nation with an aversion to strong leadership. That some Presidents are strong and effective leaders in spite of these obstacles is a testament to their talents, skills and determination. Every President has to inspire the confidence of the people. Every President has to become a leader, and to be a leader he must attract people who are willing to follow him. Every President has to develop a moral underpinning to his power, or he soon discovers that he has no power at all (Jones, 1994). In conclusion it would be relevant to refer to the words of Dwight D. Eisenhower (former US President): Leadership: the art of getting someone else to do something you  want done because he wants to do it (http://www.garymotivations.com).

Alternatives to Capitalism Explored in Thomas Mores Utopia :: More Utopia Essays

Alternatives to Capitalism Explored in Thomas More's Utopia      Ã‚   Thomas More's use of dialogue in "Utopia" is not only practical but masterly layed out as well. The text itself is divided into two parts. The first , called "Book One",   describes the English society of the fifteenth century with such perfection that it shows many complex sides of the interpretted structure with such clarity and form that the reader is given the freedom for interpretation as well. This flexibility   clearly illustrates More's request for discussion and point of view from this reader. In one concise, artistic paragraph, More clearly illustrates his proposition of the problems people possess within a capitalist society and the fault of the structure itself; clearly showing More's point of view for "Book One". If More attempted to get anything across to the people of England it was this:      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Take a barren year of failed harvests, when many thousands of men have been carried off by hunger. If at the end of the famine the barns of the rich were searched. I dare say positively enough grain would be found in them to have saved the lives of all those who died from starvation and disease, if it had been divided equally among them. Nobody really need have suffered from a bad harvest at all. So easily might men get the necessities of life if that cursed money, which is supposed to provide access to them, were not in fact the chief barrier to our getting what we need to live. Even the rich, I'm sure, understand this. They must know that it's better to have enough of what we really need than an abundance of superfluities, much better to escape from our many present troubles than to be burdened with great masses of wealth. And in fact I have no doubt that every man's perception of where his true interest lies, along with with the authority of Christ our Saviour..... would long ago have brought the whole world to adopt Utopian laws, if it were not for one single monster, the prime plague and begetter of all others---I mean pride. (More, pg.83) For one to fully realize the significance of this virtueous paragraph they first must remember the time period it was written; more so now that we are in the

Importance of the Eunuchs in Elizabeth Inchbald’s The Mogul Tale Essay

Importance of the Eunuchs in Elizabeth Inchbald’s The Mogul Tale The eunuch is an integral part of the 18th century play The Mogul Tale, by Elizabeth Inchbald. He serves a historical role by being the Mogul’s advisor, watchman, and, most importantly, harem guard. Eunuchs are generally defined as castrated males and are thus excellent choices to guard the Mogul’s women – no fear of the guard taking the ladies for himself. Inchbald reinforces these noble positions by showing the eunuch as the Mogul’s â€Å"right-hand man†. But with the passing of time these traditional roles have died along with the people who embraced them. Eunuchs now exist in an India that has all but forgotten their position as protectors. They are now part of a larger, marginalized group that exists on the fringe of Indian society - the hijras1. Hijras include such minorities as eunuchs, hermaphrodites, transvestites, transsexuals, and homosexuals and â€Å"literally means neither male nor female†2. Most hijras undergo a secretive castration operation as part of their religious rites. Because of this secrecy it is unknown as to the exact number of hijras in India. They are described, and describe themselves, as the â€Å" ‘third sex’ – somewhere inbetween and beyond male or female†3. They see themselves as existing inside and above society. Even so, theirs is a day-to-day existence. Hijras make their money one of three ways: as beggars, as entertainers at traditional ceremonies, and as prostitutes. As beggars hijras are aggressive. Three to four will confront individuals, clapping and making hand gestures. If they are given money, they extend bountiful blessings of fortune and fertility to the giver and his family line. But if they are... ...oduction of Hijras in Comtemporary Indian Politics.† Social Research v70.1 (spring 2003): 163(39). (Reddy 181) 6 Reddy 165 7 Reddy 176 8 Butalia 5 9 Reddy 177 10 Reddy 164 11 â€Å"In from the Outside: India’s Long Mistreated Eunuchs are Teaming Up to Demand Equal Rights and Better Health Care.† Time International v156.11 (Sept 18, 2000): 25. (In from the Outside 25) 12 Allahbadia and Shah 49 13 Allahbadia and Shah 49 14 Slijper, Froukje M.E. â€Å"Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India.† Archives of Sexual Behavior v26 n4 (Aug 1997): 450(4). (Slijper 452) 15 Pimlott 46 16 Pimlott 47 17 â€Å"In from the Outside† 25 18 Allahbadia and Shah 48 19 Reddy 166 20 Reddy 164 21 Reddy 166 22 â€Å"In from the Outside† 25 23 Reddy 178-9 24 Reddy 166 25 Reddy 164 26 Reddy 167-8 27 Reddy 170

moralhf Essays - Adventures Of Huck Finn And Moral Progress :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

Adventures Of Huck Finn And Moral Progress    The main character of Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn undergoes a total moral transformation upon having to make life defining decisions throughout his journey for a new life. Huck emerges into the novel with an inferiority complex caused by living with a drunken and abusive father, and with the absence of any direction. It is at this point where Huck is first seen without any concept of morality. Fortunately, Huck is later assisted by the guidance of Jim, a runaway slave who joins him on his journey and helps Huck gain his own sense of morality. Throughout Huck's adventures, he is put into numerous situations where he must look within himself and use his own judgement to make fundamental decisions that will effect the morals of which Huck will carry with him throughout his life. Preceding the start of the novel, Miss Watson and the widow have been granted custody of Huck, an uncivilized boy who possesses no morals. Huck looks up to a boy named Tom Sawyer who has decided he is going to start a gang. In order for one to become a member, they must consent to the murdering of their families if they break the rules of the gang. It was at this time that one of the boys realized that Huck did not have a real family. They talked it over, and they was going to rule me out, because they said every boy must have a family or something to kill, or else it wouldn't be fair and square for the others. Well, nobody could think of anything to do- everybody was stumped, and set still. I was most ready to cry; but all at once I thought of a way, and so I offered them Miss Watson-they could kill her (17-18). At this moment, Huck is at the peak of his immorality. A person with morals would not willingly sacrifice the life of someone else just in order to be part of a gang. It is at this point where Huck can now begin his journey of moral progression. Huck encounters his first major dilemma when he comes across the wrecked steamboat and three criminals. When J im and Huck take the skiff for themselves, leaving the three robbers stranded, Huck realizes that he has left them to die. moralhf Essays - Adventures Of Huck Finn And Moral Progress :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays Adventures Of Huck Finn And Moral Progress    The main character of Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn undergoes a total moral transformation upon having to make life defining decisions throughout his journey for a new life. Huck emerges into the novel with an inferiority complex caused by living with a drunken and abusive father, and with the absence of any direction. It is at this point where Huck is first seen without any concept of morality. Fortunately, Huck is later assisted by the guidance of Jim, a runaway slave who joins him on his journey and helps Huck gain his own sense of morality. Throughout Huck's adventures, he is put into numerous situations where he must look within himself and use his own judgement to make fundamental decisions that will effect the morals of which Huck will carry with him throughout his life. Preceding the start of the novel, Miss Watson and the widow have been granted custody of Huck, an uncivilized boy who possesses no morals. Huck looks up to a boy named Tom Sawyer who has decided he is going to start a gang. In order for one to become a member, they must consent to the murdering of their families if they break the rules of the gang. It was at this time that one of the boys realized that Huck did not have a real family. They talked it over, and they was going to rule me out, because they said every boy must have a family or something to kill, or else it wouldn't be fair and square for the others. Well, nobody could think of anything to do- everybody was stumped, and set still. I was most ready to cry; but all at once I thought of a way, and so I offered them Miss Watson-they could kill her (17-18). At this moment, Huck is at the peak of his immorality. A person with morals would not willingly sacrifice the life of someone else just in order to be part of a gang. It is at this point where Huck can now begin his journey of moral progression. Huck encounters his first major dilemma when he comes across the wrecked steamboat and three criminals. When J im and Huck take the skiff for themselves, leaving the three robbers stranded, Huck realizes that he has left them to die.

Key Factors Contributing to the Israeli

MASENO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DEVELOPMENT AND STRATEGIC STUDIES INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND DIPLOMACY UNIT; THE MIDDLE EAST IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS DIR; 307 SECTION A Research on Israel’s A. ) Geographical Location B. ) Population C. ) Ethnic Composition D. ) Historical Background E. ) Level of Economic development F. ) Nature of Government SECTION B Discuss the key factors contributing to the Israeli- Palestinian Conflict.ISRAELS FLAG ISRAELS EMBLEM SECTION A. INTRODUCTION The name Israel has historically been used in common and religious usage to refer to the biblical kingdom of Israel or the entire Jewish nation. According to the Hebrew Bible the name Israel was given to the Palestinian Jacob after he successfully wrestled with the angle of the Lord, Jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites also known as the twelve tribes, well, that is from a biblical view.Israel, officially the state of Israel is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East along the East ern shore of the Mediterranean sea, it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area, some if not all will be discussed in the essay below, in this Essay I will concentrate on discussing the general information of Israel and that includes its Geographical location, Population, Ethnic Composition, Historical background, Level of economic development and the Nature of government. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONThe geography of Israel is very diverse with desert conditions in the south and snow-capped mountains in the north. Israel is located at 31degrees north of the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea in western Asia. It is bounded to the north by Lebanon, the northeast by Syria, the East by Jordan and the West Bank, and to the southwest by Egypt with this border also being the border between Asia and Africa. To the west of Israel is the Mediterranean Sea which makes up the majority of Israel’s 273km coastline and the Gaza strip, Israel has a small coastline on the Red Sea in the south.Israel is approximately 20,700km square which includes 445km square of inland waters, Israel stretches 424km from north to south and its width ranges from 114km, at its narrowest point 15km. the Israeli occupied territories include the West Bank 5,879km, East Jerusalem 70km square and the Golan heights 1,150km square. The south of Israel is dominated by the Negev deserts covering some 16000km square more than half of the country’s total land area, the north of Negev contains the Judean desert which at its border contains the Dead Sea which at 417m is the lowest point on earth.The inland area of the Central Israel is dominated by the Judean hills of the West Bank, whilst the central and northern coastline consists of the flat and fertile Israeli Coastal Plain, the northern region contains the Mount Carmel Mountain range which is followed inland by the fertile Jazreel valley, and the hilly Galilee region. The Sea of Galilee is located beyond this an d is bordered to the east by the Golan Heights which contain the highest point under Israeli control, a peak in the Mount Harmon Massif at 2,224meters, the highest point in Israel’s internationally recognised territory is Mount Meron at 1. 08meters that is 3963ft. Israel is divided into four physiographic regions, they are as follows; The Mediterranean Coastal Plain It stretches from the Lebanese border in the north to Gaza in the south interrupted only by Cape Carmel at Haifa Bay, it is about 40km wide at Gaza and narrows towards the north to about 5km at the Lebanese border; on the right is a side view of the Coastal Plain from Rosh Hanikra Mount. The Central HillsInland (east) of the coastal plain lies the Central highland region, in the north of the region lie the mountain and hills of upper Galilee which are generally 500m to 700m in heights although reach a maximum height of 1,208m at Mount Meron. On the right is the Rainbow cave which is a natural arch on the northern ridge of Nahal Betzet. The Jordan Rift Valley East of the Central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley which is a small part of the 6500m long Syrian-East African Rift, in Israel the rift valley is dominated by the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.On the right is a picture of the Jordan Rift Valley. The Negev Desert It comprises approximately 12000km square more than half of Israel’s total land area, it is geographically an extension of the Sinai Desert, forming a rough triangle with its base in the north near Beersheba, the Dead Sea and the Southern Judean Mountains and it has its apex in the southern tip of the country at Eilat. Historical backgroundFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from their mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently, the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending the deep tensions between the two sides. The territori es Israel occupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent settlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the â€Å"Oslo Accords†) guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace.In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working in conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia – the â€Å"Quartet† – took the lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However, progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by Israeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February 2005.In the summer of 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuating settlers and its military while retaining control over most points of entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became prime minister in March 2006 and presided over a 34-day conflict with Hizballah in Lebanon in June-August 2006 and a 23-day conflict with HAMAS in the Gaza Strip during December 2008 and January 2009.OLMERT, who in June 2007 resumed talks with PA President Mahmoud ABBAS, resigned in September 2008. Prime Minister Binyamin NETANYAHU formed a coalition in March 2009 following a February 2009 general election. Direct talks launched in September 2010 collapsed following the expiration of Israel's 10-month partial settlement construction moratorium in the West Bank. The area of modern Israel was the birth place of Monotheism, first of Judaism and later of Christianity and contains of sites sacred to several Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze and Baha’i.Although coming under their sway of various empires and home to a variety of ethnicities, it was predominantly Jewish until the Jewish-Roman wars after which Jews became a minority in most regions except Galilee. The region became increasingly Christian after the 3rd century and then largely Muslim after the 7th century Arab conquest. The Arab became a focal point of conflict between Christianity and Islam between 1096-1291 and from the end of the crusades until the British conquest in 1917was part of the Syrian Province of first the Mamlut Sultanat e of Egypt and then from 1517, the Ottoman Empire.In the mid 19th century, persecution in Europe led to the formation of the Zionist movement, which was able to win international support for a Jewish Masonry state on the side of the ancient kingdoms, following the British conquest of Syria in the first World War and the formation of the mandatory state of Palestine, Jewish-Arab tension Gradually evolved into the Arab-Israeli conflict, a collision of the Jewish nationalist movement. Israel’s independence in 1948 was marked by massive migration of Jews from both Europe and the Islamic world to Israel, and of the Arabs from Israel leading to extensive conflict with the Arab League.After independence in 1948, the first president of Israel came into power on 17th Feb 1949, he was in office for two terms until 9th Nov 1952, The second president was Yitzhak Ben-Zvi who came into power on 16th Dec 1952, he stayed in office for three terms until 23rd April 1963, the third president wa s Zalman Shazar who came into power on 21st May 1963 to 24th May 1973, the forth President was Ibrahim Katzir who came to power on 24th May 1973 to 29th May 1978, the fifth president was Yitzhak Navon who became president of Israel on 29th May 1978 to 5th May 1983, the sixth president of Israel was Chaim Herzog who came to power on 5th May 1983 he ruled for two terms until 13th May 1993, the seventh president was Ezer Weizman who ruled Israel from 3rd May 1993 to 13th July 2000 he stayed in office for two terms, the eighth president of Israel was Moshe Katsau who came to power from 1st August 2000 to 1st July 2007, the ninth and current president of Israel is Mr Shimon Perez who has stayed in office since 13th July 2007.Most Israeli presidents were involved in national politics of Zionist activities before taking office, some were also distinguished in other fields for example Chaim Weizmann was aleading research chemist who founded the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rohovot; Zalm an Shazar was an Author, poet and Jonourlist, while Chaim Herzog was a military leader , attorney and diplomat. The first Israeli presidents were born in the former Russian Empire which was true of much of the leadership in the early day of the state the first with a Sephardic background was Chaim Herzog, who originally came from Belfast, Nothern Ireland. The first president from a Middle Eastern county outside of Israel was Moshe Katsar, who was born in Persia. POPULATIONIn 2012, Israel’s population was an estimated 7,933,200 people of whom 5,978,600 are Jews, Arab citizens of Israel comprise 1,636,600 of the country’s total population, those identified as others make up the remainder of the population, when the state was established, there were only 806,000 residents and the total population reached its first and second million in 1949 and 1958 respectively. The overall population grew by 96,300 people since the end of 2011 a growth rate similar to that of the last e ight years. The Jewish population grew 1. 8% (similar to past years) while the Arab population grew 2. 4% (a rapid decline from the 3. 4% annual growth rate in the 1990's). The Christian population grew 1. 3% and the Druze population grew 1. 7%. Israel's population is considered young relative to the populations of other Western countries. 28% of the population was aged 0-14 while only 10. 3% were older than 65 years of age. OECD average is 18. % (0-14) and 15% (65+). Israel's average age, however, is getting older. In 2011, the average age was 29. 5 years as opposed to 27. 6 in the year 2000. Average age for males is 28. 4 and for women is 30. 6 years old. Life expectancy in 2011 was 80 years for men and 83. 6 years for women. This life expectancy continues an upward trend of the last decade. Jewish males had a life expectancy 4. 2 years higher than their Arab counterparts; while Jewish women had expectancy 3. 0 years higher. The Israeli life expectancy is higher than the OECD aver age. About 40% of Israel's total population lives in the centre of the country (24% in Central region and 16. % in Tel Aviv area). Approximately 17% of the population lives in the north and another 14% are based in the south. 12% live in both Jerusalem and Haifa regions and another 4% in the West Bank. Just under half of the Jewish population lives in the canter of the country, either Jerusalem or Tel Aviv metropolitan areas. 60% of the Arab population lives in the north. Jerusalem and the Central region recorded an above average growth rate of 2. 5% while Tel Aviv saw one of its lowest, at 0. 8%. Israel's population density increased in 2011 to 347 people per every square kilometre (not including the West Bank) as opposed to only 288 people per km2  in 2000.By comparison, Slovenia (whose territory is roughly the same size as Israel's) has a population density of 102 people per km2; Belgium (slightly larger than Israel) has a density of 364 people per km2. Tel Aviv is Israel's den sest region with 7,522 people per km2; Jerusalem has a density of 1,484 people per km2 and Bnei Brak is Israel's densest city with 22,145 people per km2. 47,885 couples were wed in Israel over the past year, of which 75% were Jewish and 21% Muslim. 13,042 couples were divorced during the year, 80% Jews. 166,296 babies were born in Israel during 2011, almost exactly equal to the 2010 birth number of 166,255. The number of children per woman in Israel stands at 3, slightly lower than the 3. 03 of 2010. Jewish women have an average 2. 98 children (a rise of . 1 from 2010), which is the highest recorded number since 1977. The number of children for every Muslim woman stands at 3. 51; however this is a dramatic decrease from 3. 75 in 2010, the literacy level in Israel’s total population 97. 1%. ETHNIC COMPOSITION Languages Israel is a country of immigrants and its population is comprised of a mosaic people with varied ethnic backgrounds, lifestyles, religions, cultures and traditi ons. The Jewish people account for 80. 5% of the total population of Israel. Israel has two official languages, Hebrew and Arabic. Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population, and Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority.Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are broadcast in this language and English is taught from the early grades in elementary school. As a country of immigrants, many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 120,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel), Russian and Amharic are widely spoken. Between 1990 and 1994, the Russian immigration increased Israel's population by twelve percent. More than one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel from the former Soviet Union states between 1990 and 2004. French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis, mostly originating from France and North Africa.Religion Isra el and the Palestinian territories comprise the major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importance’s to all Abrahamic religions – Jews, Christians, Muslims and Baha'is. The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a social survey for those over the age of 20 indicates that 55% say they are â€Å"traditional†, while 20% consider themselves â€Å"secular Jews†, 17% define themselves as â€Å"Religious Zionists†; 8% define themselves as â€Å"Haredi Jews†. While the ultra-Orthodox, or Haredim, represented only 5% of Israel's population in 1990, they are expected to represent more than one-fifth of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.Making up 16% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority. About 2% of the populations are Christian and 1. 5% are Druze. The Christian population primarily comprises Arab Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants and the Foreign Laborers of multinatio nal origins and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity. Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers. Out of more than one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union in Israel, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Orthodox rabbinate.The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims and Christians as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Israeli-controlled Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Other locations of religious importance in Israel are Nazareth (holy in Christianity as the site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George in L od (holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, among them Joseph's tomb in Shechem, the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.The administrative center of the Baha'i Faith and the Shrine of the Bab are located at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa and the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Baha'i community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages. Baha'i staff in Israel do not teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy. Education Israel has a school life expectancy of 15 years and a literacy rate of 97. 1% according to the United Nations. The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools.The public secular is the largest school group, and is atte nded by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction. Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen. Schooling is divided into three tiers  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate. 304] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage. In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University are ranked among the world's top 100 universities by Tim es Higher Education magazine. Israel ranks third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population). Culture Israel's diverse culture stems from the diversity of the population: Jews from around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath. Israel's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture, music and cuisine. LEVEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Israel is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. In 2010, it joined the OECD. The country is ranked 3rd in the region on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index as well as in the World Econo mic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States) and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America. In 2010, Israel ranked 17th among of the world's most economically developed nations, according to IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook. The Israeli economy was ranked first as the world's most durable economy in the face of crises, and was also ranked first in the rate of research and development center investments. The Bank of Israel was ranked first among central banks for its efficient functioning, up from the 8th place in 2009. Israel was also ranked as the worldwide leader in its supply of skilled manpower.The Bank of Israel holds $78 billion of foreign-exchange reserves. Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Other major imports to Israel, totaling $47. 8  billion in 2006, include fossil fuels, raw materials, and military equipment. Leading exports include electronics, software, computerized systems, communications technology, medical equipment, pharmaceuticals, fruits, chemicals, military technology, and cut diamonds, in 2006, Israeli exports reached $42. 86  billion, and by 2010 they had reached $80. 5 billion a year.Israel is a leading country in the development of solar energy. Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy, and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley. According to the OECD, Israel is also ranked 1st in the world in expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP. Intel and Microsoft built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Ci sco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. In July 2007, U. S. illionaire Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company Iscar, its first non-U. S. acquisition, for $4  billion. Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which now account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a net lender in terms of net external debt (the total value of assets vs. liabilities in debt instruments owed abroad), which as of 2011[update] stood at a surplus of US$58. 7  billion. Days of working time in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for 5 a days ‘week'), or Friday (for 6 a days ‘week').In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a â€Å"short day†, usually lasting till 14:00 in the winter, or 16:0 0 in the summer. Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world, and make Sunday a non-working day, while extending working time of other days, and/or replacing Friday with Sunday as a work day. Israels economy faces mamny challenges, some short term and some long term challenges, the short term side, it is inability to duplicate its success in telecommunication industry into other growing industries hampers its economic outlook, its inability to foster larger multinational companies in the last decade also questions its ability to employ large numbers of people in advanced industries.On the longterm side, Israel is facing challenges on high dependency of the growing number of Ultra or Thudox Jews who have a low level of official labour force participation amongst men, and this situation could lead to a materialy lower employment –to-populationratio and a higher dependency ratio in the future , the governor of the Bank of Israel Stan ley Fitcher stated that the growing poverty amongst the Ultra or Thodox is hunting the Israel economy. According to the data published by Ian Fual rsman, 60% of the poor households in Israel are of the Haredi Jews and the Israeli Arabs, both groups together represent 25-28% of the Israeli population NATURE OF GOVERNMENT The Israeli system of government is based on parliamentary Democracy, the prime minister who is Benjamin Netanyahu is the head of government and the leader of the multi party system.Executive power is exercised by the government, Legislature power is vested in the Knesset, the Judiciary is independent of the Executive and Legislature. The political system of the state of Israel and its main principles are set out in basic laws, Israel does not have a written constitution. For governmental purposes, Israel is devided into six districts. Central District, Haifa District, Jerusalem District, Nothern District, Southern District, Tel Aviv which is the capital city of Isra el is the six district. The districts are further subdivided into fourteen subdistrict and into fifty natural regions, administration of the districts is coordinated by the ministry of interior.In the State of Israel, as in other democratic states, rule is rooted in the following liberal principles and institutions: basic laws that lay down the order of government and the rights of citizens; the holding of elections to the house of representatives based on the principle of the rule of the majority, with the rights of the minority guaranteed by law; the principle of the separation between the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judiciary, to which the institution of state control has been added; freedom of the press. The Electoral System The elections in Israel are general, equal and secret. On the national level they are held at least once every four years, and on the municipal level at least once every five years. Israel has a system of proportional representation, an d the whole state is considered a single constituency. Every party running for election presents a list of candidates, and the number of candidates entering the House of Representatives is proportional to the percentage of support the list receives.Every citizen over the age of 18, whose name appears in the list of voters, may vote. The Legislature Branch; Knesset The Knesset is the house of representatives of the State of Israel. The Basic Law: The Knesset, states that the seat of the Knesset is Jerusalem, and that upon election it will have 120 members. The law deals with the elections to the Knesset and with the essence of the service, the work and the immunity of the Knesset, its committees and its members. The law does not define the authority of the Knesset and details regarding the way its functions appear in its regulations. A new Knesset starts to function after general elections are held, which determine its makeup.The President of the State opens the first session of a ne w Knesset and immediately passes its running onto the eldest Knesset member. At this meeting the Knesset members declare their allegiance, and the Speaker of the Knesset and his deputies are elected. The Knesset fulfils its functions by means of two arms: the plenary in which all the Knesset members sit and the Knesset committees. The plenary holds debates within the framework of legislation, government statements, motions for the agenda, motions of no confidence and questions, and the deliberations usually end with a vote. The Knesset plenary decides on most issues on its agenda by means of a vote, and resolutions are adopted by a majority.A majority usually means the majority of those present at the meeting. There are, however, resolutions which require an absolute majority, and others which require a special majority. The function of the committees, in addition to dealing with bills, is to supervise the work of the Government Ministries and to hold debates on issues within the re alms for which they are responsible, and which are of public interest. By means of the committees, the Knesset maintains direct contact with the Government Ministries, and receives information from Ministers or their representatives. There are four types of Knesset committees that function on a regular basis: 1. Permanent Committees (12)Committee for Advancing the Status of Women; Constitution, Law and Justice Committee; Economic Affairs Committee; Education, Culture, & Sports Committee; Finance Committee; Foreign Affairs & Defence Committee; House Committee; Immigration and Absorption Committee; Internal Affairs & Environment Committee; Labour and Welfare Committee; Science & Technology Committee; and the State Control Committee. 2. Special Committees Committee on Drug Abuse, Committee on the Rights of the Child, Committee for Foreign Workers. 3. Parliamentary Inquiry Appointed by the Knesset Plenum  to deal with particular issues viewed as having special national importance. 4. Ethnic Committees Responsible for jurisdiction over members who have violated rules of ethics of the Knesset or who have been involved in illegal activity outside of the Knesset. In addition, there are two types of committees in the Knesset which convene only when needed: 1. The Interpretation CommitteeIt  deals with appeals against the interpretation given by the Speaker during a sitting of the plenum to the Knesset Rules of Procedure or precedents. The Committee is made up of the Speaker and eight Knesset members chosen by the House Committee. 2. Public Committees It is established to deal with issues that are connected to the Knesset. The members of public committees may be experts in a particular field, public figures, or current or past Knesset members. An example of such a committee is the Public Committee for the Draft of Ethical Guidelines for Knesset Members. The members of the committees are appointed during the first meetings of every new Knesset with the help of an â⠂¬Å"arranging committee,† which is selected for this purpose. Basic LawsEven though it was stated in the Proclamation of Independence that the Constituent Assembly, which turned into the First Knesset, would draft a constitution for Israel, this was not done due to differences of opinion with the religious parties. In place of a constitution, it was decided to legislate a series of basic laws, which in the future would together form the constitution. Even now, more than 60 years after Israel's establishment, the task of drafting a constitution has yet to come to fruition. There are several articles in the existing basic laws which can only be amended by an absolute majority (the support of more than 60 MKs) or a special majority (which is large than an absolute majority) of the Knesset members. The existing basic laws are:President of the State (1964) | The Knesset (1958) | The Government (2001) | The Judiciary (1984) | The Israel Defence Forces (1976) The Capital Jerusalem (1 980) | The People's Lands (1960) | The State Comptroller (1988) | The State Economy (1975) Human Dignity and Liberty (1992) | Freedom of Occupation (1994) The Executive branch; the Government Until after the elections to the 13th Knesset, it was the President who assigned the task of forming a new Government to the head of the list with the best chances of succeeding, who was also usually the head of the largest party in the Knesset. The Government required the approval of the Knesset, so that it needed to represent a coalition supported by a majority of the Knesset members, even if not all of its supporters were actual members in it.The 32nd Government of the State of Israel, which was formed in March 2009, is made up of the following Ministries: Agriculture and Rural Development | Communications | Construction and Housing | Culture and Sports | Defence Diaspora Affairs | Education | Energy and Water Resources | Environment | Finance | Foreign Affairs | Health Immigrant Absorption | Industry and Trade | Justice | Prime Minister's Office | Public Security | Religious Services | Science Social Affairs and Social Services | Strategic Affairs | The Interior | Tourism | Transport The President The President of the State is elected by the Knesset in a secret vote, and primarily fulfils ceremonial functions as head of State. Candidates for the presidency are customarily proposed by the large parties, and are usually well-known public figures. The President is appointed for a period of five years, which can be extended by a further five years. The functions of the President are defined in the Basic Law: The President of the State. In addition, the President assumes public functions and activities in accordance with the customs which have crystallized on the issue, and with his personal inclinations.Amongst the President's formal functions are signing laws (even though he has no control over their content) opening the first meeting of the first session of a new Knesse t, receiving the credentials of new ambassadors of foreign states, approving the appointment of civil and religious judges, the State Comptroller and the Governor of the Bank of Israel, pardoning prisoners or commuting their sentences, etc. In the past it was also the President who decided who to approach after general elections with the task of trying to form a new Government, but this function will cease to exist as of the elections to the 14th Knesset, when the Prime Minister will be directly elected. The Judiciary The courts deal with cases of persons charged with a breach of the law. Charges are brought up by citizens against other citizens, by the state against citizens, and even by citizens against the state. The sessions of the courts of law are usually public, unless it is decided to hold closed hearings under special circumstances.When more than one judge is presiding, and the judges do not agree on a verdict, the opinion of the majority is decisive. Israel does not have t rials by jury. The cases brought to the courts are of two types: criminal cases and civil cases. A criminal case is one involving a transgression of the social order, and its intention is to punish the offender, if his guilt has been proven. In a civil case the plaintiff is a private person or association and the defendant is a private person or association. The subject of the trial is the demand that a contract signed between the parties be fulfilled, a debt is returned or compensation is paid for damages caused.In a civil trial there is no punishment, but a duty to pay financial or other compensation. Freedom of the press The institutions of government in Israel are subject to public scrutiny by the written and electronic media. Public scrutiny is one of the marks and foundations of a democracy, and in Israel it is secured in the principle of freedom of expression which is mentioned in the Declaration of Independence, and is currently being secured in a basic law. REFFERENCE 1. Gl obal servey (2006); Middle East Progress Amid Global gains in freedom. 2. Wells, John V. (1990); World Economic Outlook 3. Latest population statics for Israel; Jewish Vitual Library 17th Sep 2012 4.Berger Earl; The covenant and the Sword; Arab- Israel relations, 1948, London 5. Bregman Ahron ; A history of Israel; New York; Palgrace Macmillan 2002 6. A Arnon and J. Weinblatt; Soverighnity and economic development; The case of Israel and Pakestine SECTION B INTRODUCTION The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is the ongoing struggle between Israelis and Palestinians that began in the early 20th century. The conflict is wide-ranging, and the term is also used in reference to the earlier phases of the same conflict, between the Zionist yishuv and the Arab population living in Palestine under Ottoman and then British rule. It forms part of the wider Arab–Israeli conflict.The remaining key issues are: mutual recognition, borders, security, water rights, control of Jerusalem, Isra eli settlements, Palestinian freedom of movement and finding a resolution to the refugee question. The violence resulting from the conflict has prompted international actions, as well as other security and human rights concerns, both within and between both sides, and internationally. In addition, the violence has curbed expansion of tourism in the region, which is full of historic and religious sites that are of interest to many people around the world. Below are the key factors that contribute to the conflict between Israel and Palestine in detail. Mutual RecognitionIt is often said that the fierceness of the struggle between the two stems from the fact that both the Israelis and Palestinians claim the same territory as their historical homeland, the main matter here is that for decades Israelis and Palestinians deny each other rights to exist as national entities, this mutual rejection is much more than a conflict over territory, as territory can be fought over, compromised on, c urved up and eventually shared, but when each party claims exclusive ownership of the disputed land and is profoundly convinced that the other has no right to exist, there is no way of the quagmire only a fight to finish. Israel often argue that if Palestinian and Arab leaders had not repeatedly refused any compromise over the disputed land especially if they had not rejected out of hand the 1947 UN resolution on the partition of the mandatory Palestinian into two states, one Arab the other Jewish, a decision satisfactory to both sides could have been worked out in time, the Palestinians could not even imagine sharing the land they felt that they were sure that Palestine was theirs by right and there’s only thus the emergence of the State of Israel in 1948 descended upon them as an individual and national tragedy.The Palestinian systematic rejection of Israel’s national existence and their dogged refusal to countenance any form of territorial compromise year after year , decade after decade, played into the hands of Israelis leaders from Ben–Gurion in 1948 to Golder Mier and Yitzhak Rabin in the 1970s and 1980s, it enabled them to ignore and deny Palestinians national rights and with a good conscience of that. The Oslo peace process was based upon Israel ceding authority to the Palestinians to run their own political and economic affairs. In return, it was agreed that Palestinians would promote peaceful co-existence, renounce violence and promote recognition of Israel among their own people. Despite Yasser Arafat's official renunciation of terrorism and recognition of Israel, some Palestinian groups continue to practice and advocate violence against civilians and do not recognize Israel as a legitimate political entity.Palestinians state that their ability to spread acceptance of Israel was greatly hampered by Israeli restrictions on Palestinian political freedoms, economic freedoms, civil liberties, and quality of life. It is widely felt a mong Israelis that Palestinians did not in fact promote acceptance of Israel's right to exist. One of Israel's major reservations in regards to granting Palestinian sovereignty is its concern that there is not genuine public support by Palestinians for co-existence and elimination of terrorism and incitement. Some Palestinian groups, notably Fatah, the political party founded by PLO leaders, initially claimed they were willing to foster co-existence depending on the Palestinians being steadily given more political rights and autonomy.However, in 2010, even Fatah leaders such as Mahmoud Abbas refused to recognize Israel as a Jewish state, while the leader of al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, which is the official Fatah's military wing, publicly disclosed Fatah's â€Å"ultimate goal† to be the destruction of the Jewish state, and that Abbas would lie about recognition of Israel following â€Å"Zionist and American pressure† for â€Å"political calculations† as one of the means to achieve the aforementioned goal. In 2006, Hamas won a majority in the Palestinian Legislative Council, where it remains the majority party. Hamas has openly stated in the past that it completely opposed Israel's right to exist, and its charter states this. Following the release of Gilad Shalit in 2011, Abbas praised his capturing by Hamas and reassured the Arab public he would â€Å"never recognize a Jewish state†. Israel cites past concessions such as Israel’s disengagement from the Gaza Strip in August 2005, which did not lead to a reduction of attacks and rocket fire against Israel—as an example of the Palestinian people not accepting Israel as a state.Palestinian groups and Israeli Human Rights organizations (namely B'Tselem) have pointed out that while the military occupation in Gaza was ended, the Israeli government still retained control of Gaza's airspace, territorial water, and borders, legally making it still under Israeli control. They also say that mainly thanks to these restrictions, the Palestinian quality of life in the Gaza Strip has not improved since the Israeli withdrawal. Israeli Security Concerns Throughout the conflict, Palestinian violence has been a concern for Israelis. Israel along with the United States and the European Union, refer to the violence against Israeli civilians and military forces by Palestinian militants as terrorism. The conflict between Palestine and Israel is not only basically a question of Palestinian terrorism that largely threatens the security and existence of Israel, it is also a question of Israeli Military ccupation that started in 1967, which provokes Palestinian resistance which then threatens the security of Israel, to go on speaking about Palestinian terrorism without seeing the right of the Palestinians to their freedom and to end their occupation is condemning oneself not to see reality and to remain impotent in reaching a solution, what do the Palestinians want? They want their independent state, and what do the Israelis want? They want their security inside secure borders protected from all attacks or threats, the two requirements are interdependent, after the end of the occupation will bring cessation of all violence and hence the security of Israel, but instead of putting an end to the occupation, the Israeli government maintains it and follows ways-reprisals and recently they declared war which just led to the opposite of security i. e. more Palestinians reaction, violence and hence Israelis insecurity.Oppression and humiliation imposed upon the Palestinian people can only produce violent Palestinian reactions that threaten the security of Israel. The motivations behind Palestinian violence against Israeli civilians are multiplex, and not all violent Palestinian groups agree with each other on specifics, however a common motive is to eliminate the Jewish state and replace it with a Palestinian Arab state. The most prominent Islamist groups, such as Hamas, view the Israeli–Palestinian conflict as a religious jihad. Suicide bombing is used as a tactic among Palestinian organizations like Hamas, Islamic Jihad, and the Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade and is supported by as much as 68% of the Palestinian people.In Israel, Palestinian suicide bombers have targeted civilian buses, restaurants, shopping malls, hotels and marketplaces. From 1993–2003, 303 Palestinian suicide bombers attacked Israel. The Israeli government initiated the construction of a security barrier following scores of suicide bombings and terrorist attacks in July 2003. Israel's coalition government approved the security barrier in the northern part of the green-line between Israel and the West Bank. Since the erection of the fence, terrorist acts have declined by more than 90%. Since 2001, the threat of Qassam rockets fired from the Palestinian Territories into Israel is also of great concern for Israeli defense officials.In 2006—the year followi ng Israel's disengagement from the Gaza Strip—the Israeli government recorded 1,726 such launches, more than four times the total rockets fired in 2005. As of January 2009, over 8,600 rockets had been launched, causing widespread psychological trauma and disruption of daily life. Over 500 rockets and mortars hit Israel between January–September 2010. Since mid-June 2007, Israel's primary means of dealing with security concerns in the West Bank has been to cooperate with and permit United States-sponsored training, equipping, and funding of the Palestinian Authority's security forces, which with Israeli help have largely succeeded in quelling West Bank supporters of Hamas. Rights on Water ResourcesOf the water available from the West Bank aquifers, Israel uses 73%, West Bank Palestinians use 17% and illegal Jewish settlers use 10%, while 10-14% of Palestines GDP is agricultural, 90% of them must rely on rain fed farming methods, Israels agriculture is only 3% of their G DP but Israel irrigates more than 50% of their land, three million West Bank Palestinian use only 250,000,000 cubic metres per year while six million Israelis enjoy the use of 1. 954million cubic meters which means that each Israeli consumes as much water as four Palestinians, Israeli settlers are allocated 1,450m cubic per person per year. Israel consumes the vast majority of the water from the Jordan river despite only 3% of the river falling within is pre-1967 borders.Israel now diverts one quarters of its total water consumption through its national water barrier carrier from the Jordan river, where Palestinians have no access to it what-so-ever due to Israeli closures, Israel does not allow new wells to be drilled by Palestinians and has consificated many wells for Israeli use, Israel sets quotas on how much water can be drawn by Palestinians from existing wells when supplies of water are low in the summer month, the Israeli water company closes the values which supply Palestin ian towns and villages so as not to affect Israeli supplies, this means that illegal Israeli settlers can have their pools topped up and lawns watered while Palestinians living next to them, on whose land the settltment are situated do not have enough water for drinking and cooking. In the Oslo II Accord treaty, both sides agreed to maintain â€Å"existing quantities of utilization from the resources. In so doing, the Palestinian Authority established the legality of Israeli water production in the West Bank. Moreover, Israel obligated itself in this agreement to provide water to supplement Palestinian production, and further agreed to allow additional Palestinian drilling in the Eastern Aquifer. Many Palestinians counter that the Oslo II agreement was intended to be a temporary resolution and that it was not intended to remain in effect more than a decade later. Indeed its name is â€Å"The Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement. † This agreement also established the right o f the Palestinian Authority to explore and drill for natural gas, fuel and petroleum within its territory and territorial waters.It also delineated the major terms of conduct regarding regulations on the parties' facilities. In 1999, Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs said it continued to honor its obligations under the Interim Agreement. The water that Israel receives comes mainly from the Jordan River system, the Sea of Galilee and two underground sources. According to a 2003 BBC article the Palestinians lack access to the Jordan River system. Numerous foreign nations and international organizations have established bilateral agreements with the Palestinian and Israeli water authorities. It is estimated that a future investment of about US$1. 1bn for the West Bank and $0. bn is needed for the planning period from 2003 to 2015. In order to support and improve the water sector in the Palestinian territories, a number of bilateral and multilateral agencies have been supporting many different water and sanitation programs. There are three large seawater desalination plants in Israel and two more scheduled to open before 2014. When the fourth plant becomes operational, 65% of Israel's water will come from desalination plants, according to Minister of Finance Dr. Yuval Steinitz. Palestinian Refugees of the 1948 War Palestinian refugees are people who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict.The number of Palestinians who fled or were expelled from Israel following its creation was estimated at 711,000 in 1949. Descendants of these original Palestinian Refugees are also eligible for registration and services provided by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), and as of 2010 number 4. 7 million people. A third of the refugees live in recognized refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The remainder live in and around the cities a nd towns of these host countries. Most of these people were born outside of Israel, but are descendants of original Palestinian refugees. Palestinian egotiators, most notably Yasser Arafat, have so far insisted that refugees have a right to return to the places where they lived before 1948 and 1967, including those within the 1949 Armistice lines, citing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and UN General Assembly Resolution 194 as evidence, although they have privately countenanced the return of only 10,000 refugees and their families to Israel as part of a peace settlement. Mahmoud Abbas, the current Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization accepts that it is â€Å"illogical to ask Israel to take 5 million, or indeed 1 million. That would mean the end of Israel. † The Arab Peace Initiative of 2002 declared that it proposed the compromise of a â€Å"just resolution† of the refugee problem. Palestinian and international authors have justified the right of return of the Palestinian refugees on several grounds; * A few authors included in the broader New Historians assert that the Palestinian refugees were chased out or expelled by the actions of the Haganah, Lehi and Irgun.The New Historians cite indications of Arab leaders' desire for the Palestinian Arab population to stay put. Shlaim (2000) states that from April 1948 the military forces of what was to become Israel had embarked on a new offensive strategy which involved destroying Arab villages and the forced removal of civilians. * However, historian Benny Morris states that most of Palestine's 700,000 â€Å"refugees† fled because of the â€Å"flail of war† and expected to return home shortly after a successful Arab invasion. He documents how all around Palestine, Arab leaders advised the evacuation of entire communities as happened in Haifa, 1948. Morris considers the displacement the result of a national conflict initiated by the Arabs themselves. Karsh notes tha t the Palestinians were themselves the aggressors in the 1948-49 war who attempted to â€Å"cleanse† a neighboring ethnic community. Had the United Nations resolution of November 29, 1947, which called for two states in Palestine, not been subverted by force by the Arab world, there would have been no refugee problem in the first place. He reports of large numbers of Palestinian refugees leaving even before the outbreak of the 1948 war because of disillusionment and economic privation. The British High Commissioner for Palestine spoke of the â€Å"collapsing Arab morale in Palestine† that he partially attributed to the â€Å"increasing tendency of those who should be leading them to leave the country† and the considerable evacuations of the Arab effendi class.Huge numbers of Palestinians were also expelled by their leadership to prevent them from becoming Israeli citizens and in Haifa and Tiberias, tens of thousands of Arabs were forcibly evacuated on the instru ctions of the Arab Higher Committee. * The Israeli Law of Return that grants citizenship to any Jew from anywhere in the world is viewed by some as discrimination against non-Jews, especially Palestinians that cannot apply for such citizenship or return to the territory which they were expelled from or fled during the course of the 1948 war. Since none of the 900,000 Jewish refugees who fled anti-Semitic violence in the Arab world was ever compensated or repatriated by their former countries of residence—to no objection on the part of Arab leaders—a precedent has been set whereby it is the responsibility of the nation which accepts the refugees to assimilate them.Although Israel accepts the right of the Palestinian Diaspora to return into a new Palestinian state, Israel insists that their return into the current state of Israel would be a great danger for the stability of the Jewish state; an influx of Palestinian refugees would lead to the destruction of the state of Israel. Control over Jerusalem Israel remains one of the core issues in the Israel-Palestinian conflict, During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war West Jerusalem was among the areas captured and latter annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem including the Old City was captured by Jordan. Israel captured East Jerusalem during the six day war and subsequently annexed it. The border of Jerusalem is a particularly delicate issue, with each side asserting claims over this city.The three largest Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—include Jerusalem as an important setting for their religious and historical narratives. Israel asserts that the city should not be divided and should remain unified within Israel's political control. Palestinians claim at least the parts of the city which were not part of Israel prior to June 1967. As of 2005, there were more than 719,000 people living in Jerusalem; 465,000 were Jews (mostly living in West Jerusalem) and 232,000 were Muslim s (mostly living in East Jerusalem). The Israeli government, including the Knesset and Supreme Court, is centered in the â€Å"new city† of West Jerusalem and has been since Israel's founding in 1948. After Israel aptured the Jordanian-controlled East Jerusalem in the Six-Day War, it assumed complete administrative control of East Jerusalem. In 1980, Israel issued a new law stating, â€Å"Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel. † At the Camp David and Taba Summits in 2000–01, the United States proposed a plan in which the Arab parts of Jerusalem would be given to the proposed Palestinian state while the Jewish parts of Jerusalem were retained by Israel. All archaeological work under the Temple Mount would be jointly controlled by the Israeli and Palestinian governments. Both sides accepted the proposal in principle, but the summits ultimately failed.Israel has grave concerns regarding the welfare of Jewish holy places under possible Palestinian control. When Jerusalem was under Jordanian control, no Jews were allowed to visit the Western Wall or other Jewish holy places, and the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives was desecrated. [63] In 2000, a Palestinian mob took over Joseph's Tomb, a shrine considered sacred by both Jews and Muslims, looted and burned the building and turned it into a mosque. [64] There are unauthorized Palestinian excavations for construction on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, which could threaten the stability of the Western Wall. Israel, on the other hand, has seldom blocked access to holy places sacred to other religions.Israeli security agencies routinely monitor and arrest Jewish extremists that plan attacks, resulting in almost no serious incidents for the last 20 years. Moreover, Israel has given almost complete autonomy to the Muslim trust (Waqf) over the Temple Mount. Israel expresses concern over the security of its residents if neighborhoods of Jerusalem are placed under Palestinian cont rol. Jerusalem has been a prime target for attacks by militant groups against civilian targets since 1967. Many Jewish neighborhoods have been fired upon from Arab areas. The proximity of the Arab areas, if these regions were to fall in the boundaries of a Palestinian state, would be so close as to threaten the safety of Jewish residents.Nadav Shragai states this idea in his study for the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, â€Å"An Israeli security body that was tasked in March 2000 with examining the possibility of transferring three Arab villages just outside of Jerusalem – Abu Dis, Al Azaria, and a-Ram – to Palestinian security control, assessed at the time that: ‘Terrorists will be able to exploit the short distances, sometimes involving no more than crossing a street, to cause damage to people or property. A terrorist will be able to stand on the other side of the road, shoot at an Israeli or throw a bomb, and it may be impossible to do anything about it. The road will constitute the border. ‘ If that is the case for neighborhoods outside of Jerusalem's municipal boundaries, how much more, so for Arab neighborhoods within those boundaries. Palestinians have voiced concerns regarding the welfare of Christian and Muslim holy places under Israeli control. Some Palestinian advocates have made statements alleging that the Western Wall tunnel was re-opened with the intent of causing the mosque's collapse.Israel considers these statements to be totally baseless and unfounded, and to be deliberately intended to incite aggression and public disorder, and stated this in a 1996 speech at the UN. Israeli Military Occupation in West Bank Occupied Palestinian Territory is the term used by the United Nations to refer to the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip—territories which were captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, having formerly been controlled by Egypt and Jordan. The Israeli government uses the te rm Disputed Territories, to argue that some territories cannot be called occupied as no nation had clear rights to them and there was no operative diplomatic arrangement when Israel acquired them in June 1967.The area is still referred to as Judea and Samaria by some Israeli groups, based on the historical regional names from ancient times. In 1980, Israel annexed East Jerusalem. Israel has never annexed the West Bank or Gaza Strip, and the United Nations has demanded the â€Å"termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for an acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force† and that Israeli forces withdraw â€Å"from territories occupied in the recent conflict† – the meaning and intent of the latter phrase is disputed. See Interpretations.It has been the position of Israel that the most Arab-populated parts of West Bank (without major Jewish settlements), and the entire Gaza Strip must eventually be part of an independent Palestinian State. However, the precise borders of this state are in question. At Camp David, for example, then-Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak offered Yasser Arafat an opportunity to establish an independent Palestinian State composed of 92% of the West Bank, Arab neighborhood of East Jerusalem, and the entire Gaza Strip and dismantling of most settlements. Yasser Arafat rejected the proposal without providing a counter-offer. A subsequent settlement proposed by President Clinton offered Palestinian sovereignty over 94 to 96 percent of the West Bank but was similarly rejected.Some Palestinians claim they are entitled to all of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. Israel says it is justified in not ceding all this land, because of security concerns, and also because the lack of any valid diplomatic agreement at the time means that ownership and boundaries of this land is open for discussion. Palestinians claim any reduction of this claim is a severe deprivation of their rights. In negotiations, they claim that any moves to reduce the boundaries of this land are a hostile move against their key interests. Israel considers this land to be in dispute, and feels the purpose of negotiations is to define what the final borders will be.Other Palestinian groups, such as Hamas, have in the past insisted that Palestinians must control not only the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, but also all of Israel proper. For this reason, Hamas has viewed the peace process â€Å"as religiously forbidden and politically inconceivable†. Control of the Air Space During the Camp David Summit during the summer of 2000, American military experts raised the question of whether the Israeli demand for control of a unified air space over all the territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River was ess ential. Among the justifications provided by Israeli representatives was the danger of aerial terrorism. The Israeli explained their need to be prepared in the event of a suicide attack, carried out by a civilian air craft laden with explosives.Access to the Israelis air space from the Mediterranean sea to the west is permitted only to planes that have identified themselves and have been identified before they come within 100meters of Israel The Palestinians have demanded control over the Kalandia (Atarot) airfield in Jerusalem, to have it become the international airport of the Palestinian state. They also intend to establish additional airports for internal Palestinian air traffic. Israel opposes handing over Atarot airfield to the Palestinians since a Palestinian airport adjacent to Israel’s capital poses an unacceptable risk. The operation of a Palestinian airport in the West Bank would also entail substantial risks – both in terms of security and in terms of fligh t safety. Israel would lack the sufficient flight safety.Israel would lack the sufficient response time required to intercept a hostile response time required to intercept a hostile plane on a mission to attack an Israeli target. In addition, there is the danger of traffic overload in the international corridor between Israel and Jordan, and an overlap of activity (circling) involving Ben-Gurion Airport, Israeli military airports, and civilian airports in the West Bank. The Palestinians repeatedly argue that they The Palestinians repeatedly argue that they insist that peace will bring security. Therefore believe their own interests take precedence over Israel’s. Conversely, Israel views its security as a necessary condition for maintaining peace and stability, and cannot agree to proposals that would base its vital security needs solely on diplomatic agreements.It is only through a mutual understanding of the other party’s needs – and by building an effective co ordination apparatus to provide fitting solutions to demands on both sides – that a stable and viable agreement can be implemented. In light of the special time, space and topographical conditions of the area, it is not possible to divide the airspace and the electromagnetic spectrum between Israel and a future Palestinian state. For both of these, unified solutions are